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The book summarizes studies related to the herpetofauna of Kazakhstan that were carried out in the 18th century. The first fragmentary information on this topic refers to the middle of this century (J.G. Gmelin, P.I. Rychkov). The greatest scientific value were the results of the academic expeditions (P.S. Pallas, I.I. Lepekhin, S.G. Gmelin, J.P. Falk, J.G. Georgi, N.P. Rychkov) between 1768 and 1774, especially the field data obtained by P.S. Pallas. This information served as a basis for the inclusion of data on amphibians and reptiles inhabiting the territories of present-day Kazakhstan (mainly the western Caspian region) into foreign herpetological reviews on a global scale as well as the zoological manuals established by West- European naturalists (e.g., P.L.S. Müller, G.H. Borowski, B.-G.-É. Lacepède, P.-G. Bonnaterre, J.F. Gmelin, F.A. Меyer, J.A. Donndorff, G.A. Suckow, I. Schneider, J.M. Bechstein, W. Тurton). Тhese studies concluded with the first summaries of the herpetofauna of the Russian Empire compiled by J.G. Georgi (1801) as well as by P.S. Pallas in his “Zoographia Rosso-Asiatica” (1814). Short biographies of all mentioned authors are presented in this volume, and annotated lists of species they noted for Kazakhstan as well.

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All the Turkish populations studied, both those previously assigned to D. dryada (Subaşı and Yoldere villages, near Hopa) and those attributed to D. clarkorum (the largest sample studied so far, 177 specimens in total), are indistinguishable from each other and therefore must all be ascribed to the natural variability of a monotypic D. clarkorum. The Georgian specimens from the Type Locality of D. dryada (Charnaly river gorge, Chevachauri district) are clearly different, so that taxon cannot be considered a simple synonym for D. clarkorum, but as a valid taxon, although its proper status (more probably as a subspecies of D. clarkorum), is yet to be clarified. It is a highly threatened population, so studies should be done in vivo or with as low intrusiveness as possible. Darevskia dryada is clearly larger (SVL) than any D. clarkorum studied, with strongly longer heads and pilei in adult males (and hence more teeth in dentary bone), and higher dorsalia counts. There also seem to be (but need to be studied in a larger sample) more longitudinal rows of temporal scales between tympanic and parietal plates, a tendency to have more supralabial scales; comparatively smaller values for longitudinal rows of scales on the ventral surface of the thigh between the femoral pores and the outer row of enlarged scales, and higher collaria, and circumanalia scales. Other differences in femoralia and gularia are also reflected in Darevsky & Tuniyev’s (1997) tables and should also be investigated with more Georgian specimens. Two supposed discriminant characters, the frontonasal index and the presence of developed masseteric, are not valid. The frontonasal index does not discriminate both taxa; D. dryada specimens fall inside the variation of D. clarkorum for this character. Also the presence of a developed masseteric plate is supposed to be rare if at all in D. clarkorum but always present in D. dryada; however, it appears in nearly 75% of D. clarkorum studied and in all D. dyada, so is also no longer valid for taxa discrimination. Although very similar, D. clarkorum and D. dryada are morphologically different, and genetic studies (as the unpublished results mentioned by Fu, 1999) do not make the provenance of the specimens clear, and hence the correct identification of the supposed specimens of D. dryada used. There are no geographical clines in D. clarkorum. However, as stated by Schmidtler et al. (2002), there is an inverse relationship between altitude and dorsalia values in D. clarkorum. Both the general differentiation between populations and the scalation (dorsalia) appear statistically correlated with the altitude and also with latitude (being both factors not strictly the same). The correlation seems to be stronger with morphology in general (multiple scalation characters and head biometry) than only with dorsalia. In the case of the general differentiation among samples, it is also significantly correlated with temperatures during the activity period (April-September) and with precipitation during incubation (July-August). As these climatic parameters of temperature and precipitation are not directly correlated with the dorsalia variation, the relation with altitude (and perhaps latitude) must be linked to some other climatic parameter not studied here, perhaps solar radiation or evapotranspiration.

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Reptiles have become popular exotic pets and in some parts of the world, they are used as important source of food, medicines, and materials. Synanthropic lizards are recognized as reservoirs of viruses, bacteria, and parasites but their role in dissemination of zoonotic pathogenic yeasts in the environment was never investigated. Therefore, fecal samples (n=177) from Podarcis siculus (Italian wall lizard), Chalcides ocellatus (Ocellated skink) and Tarentola mauritanica (Moorish gecko) were collected and yeasts were isolated and identified biochemically and molecularly by sequencing the rDNA internal transcribed spacer region (ITS). The phylogenetical relationship of isolated yeast species and their antifungal susceptibility profiles to ten antifungal agents were also assessed. Sixty samples (n=60/177; 33.9%) scored positive for yeasts, with the highest occurrence in C. ocellatus (n=11/17; 64.7%) and the highest variety of species in P. siculus (n=11/12; 91.6%). A total of 364 isolates belonging to Candida, Trichosporon, Saccharomyces and Geotrichum genera were molecularly identified. In particular, Candida albicans (n=160; 44%) followed by Trichosporon coremiiforme (n=44; 12.1%), Pichia kudriavzevii (n=32; 8.8%) and Trichosporon asahii (n=28; 7.7%) were the most frequently isolated species. The phylogenetic tree grouped all representative sequence types within the clade including Candida spp. strains from different geographical areas and from animal species, including human. All tested strains showed high susceptibility to the assayed antifungal drugs. This study suggests the role of lizards as reservoirs and spreaders of zoonotic pathogenic yeasts in the environment. The absence of resistance phenomena in the isolated yeasts might reflect an environment free of azole antifungal pollution or chemicals, suggesting the usefulness of these animals as bio indicators of environment quality.

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A total of 23 herpetofaunal species, including 2 frogs, 15 lizards, 5 snakes and one tortoise were reported from Nalut, Al-Jomayyel and Wazen provinces in Libya during the period November 2003- June 2004. Of these, 2 frogs and 16 reptile species were added to Nalut herpetofauna. This study confirms the occurrence of Scincopus fasciatus in Libya (Sindaco, 1995) and suggests the prevalence of Uromastyx acanthinura in the Libyan west. In contrast, some species such as Mesalina rubropunctata was rare in western Libya.

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Background The presence of white blood inflammatory cells in injured tissues and their effect on the process of organ regeneration in lizards has been assessed on tail, limb and digits. Methods The present immunohistochemical survey analyzes the occurrence of CD68-labeled cells in lizard organs uncapable of regenerating tissues that exhibit strong inflammatory activity. Results This marker mainly identifies macrophages and mast cells present in large number within tissues of injured limbs and digits. Also a high inflammation is associated with amputated tails that do not regenerate, derived from cauterization or infection of tissues of the tail stump. In the healing limbs and fingers at 12–20 days post-amputation, numerous CD68-labeled cells, most likely macrophages, are seen among superficial connective tissues and injured muscles and bones. These cells likely stimulate and give rise to scarring tissues and no regeneration of limb and fingers occurs. In the cauterized or in the infected tail stump a strong accumulation of CD68-positive mast cells and macrophages is observed, where they likely evoke epidermal coagulation, formation of scarring connective tissue, and loss of regeneration. Conclusions The present observations provide further cytological evidence that support the notion that a strong and lasting inflammatory condition impedes organ regeneration in specifically lizards and, more generally other vertebrates as well.

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Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) is a group of highly polymorphic genes involved in the adaptive immune response of jawed vertebrates. Multiple factors, such as host-pathogen co-evolution, negative frequency dependent selection, and heterozygote advantage contribute to the generation and maintenance of MHC diversity. One possible force affecting MHC diversity is introgression, which could persist for MHC even under strong reproductive isolation. In this analysis, a group of Podarcis lizard species inhabiting the Iberian peninsula was studied. 600 individuals were sampled, after which DNA was extracted, amplified, and sequenced, identifying MHC class I and II alleles. The study system was characterized in terms of its MHC allele diversity, and two hybrid zones were tested for MHC introgression. Analysis showed an extremely high overall number of alleles, significant differences between species and populations within species, and high but similar mean numbers of alleles per individual. Whole genome sequencing of individuals revealed very low instances of hybridization and genome-wide introgression. Hybrid zone analysis showed strongly statistically significant differences in MHC allele sharing between zones of close contact compared to zones of no contact, indicating introgression. These results are in line with the hypothesis that MHC genes are among the last to stop introgressing in the last stages of speciation.

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The distribution and occurrence of a species in its habitat are inevitably linked to its ecology. To successfully monitor and protect species, it is important to investigate which species-specific factors influence its interactions with the environment. In this study, we focus on patterns in habitat use of the Sand Lizard (Lacerta agilis). Differences in seasonal as well as sex and size class-dependent habitat use have been reported from the edges of this species’ range. To verify such trends in the core area of its distribution, we analyzed the habitat factors weather, microclimate, microhabitat structures, and time dependence, which may have an impact on the use of space of the Sand Lizard. Using generalized linear models, hypervolumes, density estimations, and Chi-squared tests, we found that the movement patterns of individuals can neither be described by time differences, climatic conditions, or habitat composition, nor do they show habitat- or weather-related differences of movement between sexes or size. Here we demonstrate that in the case of a population from the core of this species’ distribution area in the Dellbrücker Heide (Germany), habitat use is solely influenced to a low degree by differ ences related to the ontogeny of Sand Lizards and does not depend on any of the other evaluated factors. These results are in enormous contrast to findings in populations from the periphery of their distribution, i.e., the United Kingdom, Latvia, Romania, Bulgaria, and the Pyrenees. This implies that seasonal habitat shifts are more extreme at the edges of the range of L. agilis, serving to compensate deteriorating habitat conditions in the periphery.

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attracting interest since it reflects morph local adaptation. A recent study in the Pyrenees associated the pattern of geographic variation in morph frequency of the common wall lizard with the divergence in climatic niches, supporting the hypothesis that morphs represent alternative local climatic adaptations. However, the Pyrenees represent only a small portion of the species range. Aims: We modelled the ecological niches of Italian morphs using the same procedure adopted for the Pyrenees to check whether the effects detected at local scales (i.e. the Pyrenees) were repeatable at regional scales (i.e. Italy). This generalisation is needed to investigate how natural selection maintains locally adapted polymorphisms. Methods: We classified each locality (120 populations) according to the presence/absence of morphs, and independent Ecological Niche Models (ENMs) against the same background were fitted. Receiver Operating Curves accounting for sampling biases, equivalency and similarity tests were used to check and compare models accounting for spatial distribution of data. Key results: Morph-specific ENMs did not reproduce any of the patterns detected in the Pyrenees. Any difference among morphs disappeared after controlling for morph spatial distribution. Since occurrence points of the rarest morphs were a subsample of the occurrence points of the most common morph, it is not possible to separate the effects of true ecological differences among morphs from the effects of the spatial distribution patterns of morph occurrence. Conclusions: Using presence data not specifically collected for ENM comparisons does not allow reliable assessments of morph niche segregation. Our analysis points out the need to be very cautious in ecological interpretations of ENMs built on presence/background or presence-only data when occurrences are spatially nested. Implications: When dealing with data not specifically collected according to a targeted design, it is not legitimate to compare ENMs with completely nested occurrence points, because this approach can not exclude the possibility that ENM differences were the result of a spatial subsampling. This type of bias is probably largely underestimated, and it may lead to serious misinterpretations as shown in this study.

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Habitat loss can increase the susceptibility of individuals to parasitic infections, and hence, parasite load can serve as an early warning indicator of stress before the persistence of a population becomes threatened. In this study, we tested the effects of patch characteristics, isolation and landscape composition resulting from habitat loss on the tick load of individuals from central populations of the Eastern Green Lizard Lacerta viridis. We identified the spatial scale at which each landscape composition parameter has the strongest effect and evaluated its effects at this scale. Additionally, we tested the relationships between tick load and population density and body condition (BC) to understand possible mechanisms that determine tick loads in populations. We found that tick load was not affected by host population density. BC was not found to be affected by tick load, but BC did have a negative effect on lizards’ tick loads. The proportion of habitat and cropland in the landscape and patch size had positive effects on tick loads, whereas the proportion of urbanized areas, isolation and perimeter/area ratio had negative effects. We discuss our finding in the context of how the landscape can affect tick populations and other potential hosts. We conclude that tick load can be a suitable early warning indicator of negative effects of habitat loss, reflecting the susceptibility of lizards to infestation. We suggest that this indicator be included in monitoring programs aiming at evaluating the status of populations of L. viridis in modified landscapes, and recommend that conservation measures be focused on the protection of habitat at broader scales to compensate negative effects of cropland and urbanized areas occurring at small scales.

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On September 2018 a fire occured on the Monte Pisano, burning more than 11 km2 of woods and crops, involving part of three municipal territories: Calci, Buti and Vicopisano. From literature it is known that fire strongly influences the ecological structure of habitats and the structures of animal and plant communities. The study of fire and its ecological role (fire ecology) is a matter of study for botanists and zoologists. While the effects that fire has on some taxa are well known, very limited data have been published on its influence on reptile populations. Unfortunately, no data are available on pre-fire lacertid populations of the Monte Pisano and the aim of this work is therefore to verify the possible impacts of fire on lacertid populations on this area comparing areas affected by fire with areas not affected by fire. We assumed that in a pre-fire situation the two areas (burnt and unburnt) did not present significant differences in total abundance of individual lizards and in body size. The present work focuses on monitoring study of two very common and easily recordable species: Podarcis muralis and Podarcis siculus. From individuals captured by pitfall trap in a burnt area (called San Bernardo - used for an insect study project), I extrapolated data on population structure using data on biometric measures and class (juveniles, adults) frequencies. The biometric data were compared with other data, available at the Museum of Natural History of University of Pisa, from unburned areas, where individuals were captured by noosing. Using pitfall trap, 113 individuals of Podarcis were captured. The individuals were counted and then the biometric parameters (snout to vent length (SVL), head length, head width, head height) of the adult individuals were taken. The sample from the burnt area was composed by more than 60% juveniles, indicating a good capacity for recovery and population growth (at least in the pitfall trap area). In the pitfall trap area, 80% of the sample consisted of P. muralis. Biometric analyses were carried out only on male P. muralis, due to the limited sample size of the other sex and other speciessex. Analyses showed that individuals from the burnt area were smaller than those from the unburnt areas. I also performed the visual count method, a monitoring system, based on repeated counts along transects, noting position, sex and age on GPS. This method was used to estimate the abundance and a to give a descriptive analysis of the distribution of the two species along transects. Four transects were chosen, two located in an area crossed by fire and two located in an area not crossed by fire. Each transect has a length of 500 m, as suggested by the `ISPRA 2016` manual. The data collected along the transects show that the distribution of the two species is greatly influenced by the type of habitat (open and sunny areas vs. cool and shady areas). Analyses show an abundance difference between the populations in burnt and unburnt areas. In burnt areas, the abundance of lacertids is lower than in unburnt areas and the sizes are smaller. Limitations due to sample size and possible bias in the trapping methods are discussed in the final chapter.

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Thoracic spinal ganglia and dorsal roots central to the latter from three adult lizards (Lacerta muralis) kept at 30°C for 90–95 days and from three other lizards kept at 3°C for the same length of time were examined under the electron microscope. The number, density, and distribution of microtubules were determined in cross sections of unmyelinated and myelinated axons of the dorsal roots. The relationships between the densities of microtubules and the cross-sectional areas of the axons were not found to be significantly different in the hot and cold lizards. Also the perikaryal microtubules, which however, were not quantitatively evaluated, showed no obvious differences under these conditions. The assumption that the microtubules studied in the present research are first disassembled in the cold and then reassembled before fixation has taken effect is probably incorrect because the specimens were fixed at the same temperature at which they had been previously kept, and also because neither C-shaped microtubules nor macrotubules were observed. The most likely explanation of the present results is that the microtubules here studied are cold stable.

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The knowledge of a species’ spatial ecology is essential for its conservation as it helps to implement targeted protection measures to suitable habitats. In 2011 and 2013, two French populations of ocellated lizards Timon lepidus were monitored through very high frequency (VHF) radio telemetry in two distinct Mediterranean habitats: a 77 ha scrubland (n = 8) and a 1590 ha semi-arid steppe (n = 11) corresponding to a heterogeneous and homogeneous habitat respectively. The variability in spatial estimates for the seasonal habitat use of the ocellated lizard was compared within the two sites using the Autocorrelated Kernel Density Estimation (AKDE). Recursive movement patterns and spatial repartition of shelters were further assessed to study the habitat influence on the species’ space use. No significant differences between sexes or sites were identified in the computed AKDE ranges. This inter-site approach demonstrated higher shelter revisits in core-areas than in the rest of estimated home ranges for both sites. A higher shelter density was observed in the core areas of the lizards than in the rest of their home-ranges for the Mediterranean scrubland but not for the semi-arid steppe. Such findings might attest to the species’ adaptive capabilities within two distinct Mediterranean ecosystems.

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Aim: The contributions of historical biogeography, morphology and climatic niche evolution in shaping species diversification have been typically examined separately. To fill this gap, we assessed the relative role of geologic history, environment and phenotypic trait evolution in lineage diversification of green lizards in the Mediterranean biodiversity hotspot. Location: Eurasia and North Africa. Taxon: Green lizards (genera Timon and Lacerta). Methods: For all green lizard lineages, we characterized distributional ranges and external morphological traits across discrete biogeographical areas, occupied macro-habitats and climatic niches using environmental variables that represent average and extreme climatic conditions. To assess the contribution of geographical factors in shaping diversity patterns, we evaluated the fit of 24 biogeographical models. We used BAMM and estimated phylogenetic signal to assess the rates of lineage diversification and of phenotypic and climatic niche evolution, and to determine whether these processes occurred steadily or at specific time periods as a response to palaeogeological or palaeoclimatic events. Finally, we tested for associations between phenotypic traits and lineage diversification using trait-dependent diversification analyses (QuaSSE, ES-sim and STRAPP). Results: Biogeographical analyses favoured a dispersal–vicariance model explaining speciation patterns in green lizards, including jump dispersal and constrained dispersal by geographical distance. Lineages accumulated gradually towards the present, with minor divergence in morphological traits and conservatism of climatic niches. In contrast, in the Lacerta agilis lineage, niche evolution may have allowed expansion towards colder environments. Morphological and climatic niche evolution were uncoupled from diversification rates. Main Conclusions: Biogeographical processes largely explain the constant lineage diversification of green lizards in the Mediterranean Basin since the Miocene, followed by gradual phenotypic divergence unrelated to cladogenesis. Climatic niche conservatism promoted the accumulation of lineages within the Mediterranean, except for L. agilis, where climatic niche evolution might underpin its range spread towards higher latitudes.

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Aim: Determining whether altitudinal shifts in species distributions leave molecular footprints on wild populations along their range margins from rear to leading edge. Location: South-west France. Methods: We compared the demographic and genetic variation in 42 wild populations of the Western oviparous subclade B2 of a cold adapted lizard (Zootoca vivipara louislantzi). These populations can be divided into four ecological units across altitudinal clines in South-west France (rear edge: <100 m, admixture zone: 100-500 m, continuous range: 500-1300 m and leading edge: >1300 m above sea level). Results: Within the rear edge were found the highest levels of inbreeding, genetic differentiation and evidence of interrupted gene flow compared to central or colonising areas. Within the leading edge, altitudinal range expansion occurred over the last centuries and populations showed relatively low genetic diversity. These demographic and genetic trends were better explained by inhospitable (warm and dry) climate conditions and forest cover. Main conclusions: This empirical evidence illustrates that molecular footprints of climate conditions and habitat quality on wild population trends can be perceived after recent events, which should be of particular importance to accurately understand and anticipate human-induced global change on wild species and ecosystems.

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Behavioral fight responses to desiccation risk are important to predict the vulnerability of terrestrial animals to climate change and yet, they have received little attention so far. In terrestrial ectotherms, behavioral regulation of the water balance (i.e., hydroregulation) is likely to be plastic and may trade-off with thermoregulation behavior because water loss rates are generally higher in warmer environments and body temperatures. When low water availability and heat stress cause physiological dehydration, we expect to highlight a shift to behavioral water-conservation strategies including changes in activity patterns, microhabitat selection and thermoregulation strategies. Here, we compared the behavior of adult common lizards (Zootoca vivipara) in indoor arenas that either had a permanent access to water or underwent a one-week long experimental water restriction. Water-restricted lizards reduced their behavioral activity, selected more often cooler and wetter refuges during daytime, and performed less accurate thermoregulation than control lizards. The activity of water-restricted gravid females shifted towards the cooler and wetter early hours of the day. In addition, they had lower body temperatures and preferred lower body temperatures at the end of the experiment (i.e., thermal depression). Water-restricted lizards suffered from a mild physiological dehydration, water-restricted females had lower mass change compared to control ones, and water-restricted males lost weight. Heat stress was simulated every second day, which led to a range of heat avoidance and water conservation strategies independent from water restriction. 5. Altogether, these results confirm that chronic water restriction and dehydration induce responses towards water conservation that conflict with thermoregulation accuracy.

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Reptiles are known hosts of a wide variety of parasites, including haemoparasites. Species of Lankestrella (Apicomplexa; Haemococcidia) have been described from the blood of lizards distributed in American and western European areas. In the present study, we characterized morphologically and molecularly the haemococcidian parasites (sporozoites) that infect the blood cells of Eremias persica and Ophisops elegans, two species of lacertid lizards from central Iran. By the microscopic examination of the smears, we identified parasites as the genus Lankestrella. In total, two positive samples of each species have investigated the basis of the partial 18S rRNA gene analyses. The result of similarity analysis with our sequences using the Basic Local Alignment Search Tool (BLAST) indicated a11 four parasites belonging to one haplotype of Lankestrella sp. The phylogenetic analysis revealed that the new Lankestrella sp is related to Lankestrella sp identified from two lizards belonging to Spain and Socotra Archipelago. This is the first report of Lankestrella parasites in the new lizard`s host. The present study provided additional information about the new host of Lankestrella species and added new knowledge to clarify the future phylogenetic relationship between these parasites. Our results emphasize the importance of screening haemococcidian parasites in Iran.

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Die umfangreichen naturwissenschaftlichen, wirtschaftlichen und kulturellen Forschungen nördlich des Schwarzen Meeres und in Sibirien gegen Ende des 18. Jh. waren Effekt der russischen Expansion des Imperiums durch Zarin Katharina II. Die entsprechenden Publikationen sollten insbesondere die Neuerwerbungen festigen. Einer der Forscher in diesem Kontext war Johann Gottlieb Georgi (1729–1802). Seine Beschreibung der Taurischen Eidechse, damals Lacerta taurica, von der Halbinsel Krim im Werk Geographisch-physikalische und Naturhistorische Beschreibung des Rusischen Reiches gehörte zu den Ergebnissen der damaligen zoologischen Forschung. „Georgi, 1801“ muss als der „korrekte“ Autor von Lacerta taurica, heute Podarcis tauricus, mit der Terra typica „Balaklawa“ (südliche Krim-Halbinsel) angesehen werden. Die spätere Beschreibung und identische Benennung durch Peter Simon Pallas (1814) erfolgte vermutlich in Kenntnis von Georgis Beschreibung und bezieht sich auf dieselbe Art. Da nach den Nomenklaturregeln der Name des Autors nicht Bestandteil des Namens der Art ist, können auch die Regeln wie für ein „nomen oblitum“ nicht gelten. Lacerta taurica Georgi, 1801, wurde von Nikolsky (1915) als „nomen nudum“ bezeichnet, was vermutlich auf einem Versehen dieses Autors beruht. Der mehrfache kryptische Hinweis am Rande von Georgis Beschreibung auf einen „Habl.“ oder „Hablz.“ bezieht sich auf die Beschreibung einer „Lacerta agilis varietas“ vom selben Fundort (Balaklawa) durch Carl Ludwig Hablizl (1785: 195 bzw. 1789: 350). Dieser Hinweis bezieht sich allein auf die Herkunft der Information, begründet jedoch keine Autorschaft oder Mitautorschaft.

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Podarcis wall lizards mainly feed on coleopterans, orthopterans, arachnids, and other small invertebrates. However, Aegean wall lizards, Podarcis erhardii, are widely distributed across Aegean islands and are increasingly observed eating non-traditional food items ranging from plant material to conspecific eggs and body parts. Here, we report the first documented case of P. erhardii consuming a large centipede, Scolopendra cingulata. The predator-prey relationship between these species has appeared to go both ways and may intensify on islands.

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Amphibian and reptile species, which are ectothermic animals, spend the winter months underground depending on the seasonal change in temperate regions. The availability of nutrients is also an important reason for the hibernation of these animal species. Ectothermic animals need higher air temperature and body temperature after hibernation to be able to perform their vital activities such as reproduction, feeding, escaping from predators. With the global climate change that is taking place, unusual winter activities can be observed in amphibian and reptile species. In addition, global warming has a significant impact on amphibians and reptiles, which leads to the fact that the species leaves hibernation earlier. As part of the research, field works were carried out in Bozcaada, Çanakkale on 19 and 20 February 2022. During the field studies, sampling was carried out for the detection of amphibian and reptile species, air temperature, coordinates of the observed individuals, habitat characteristics in which they lived, and sex characteristics were recorded. The captured specimens were subsequently released. In this study, Lissotriton schmidtleri, Mauremys rivulata, Testudo graeca, Hemidactylus turcicus, Mediodactylus kotschyi, Ophisops elegans and Ablepharus kitaibelii species in February and data on unusual winter activities were reported. Among the species, winter activity was found for the first time in relation to Ablepharus kitaibelii. Determining the unusual winter activity of ectothermal animals will contribute to the literature on the biology of species and the effects of climate change.

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After comparison of results obtained by different modalities of 3h-5HTP injections (involving intraallantodic, intraventricular and intraperitoneal injections), the intraperitoneal one was retaineed to study experimental cytochemcal biosynthesis of indoleamines, in the epiphysis of Lacerta vivpara J., during ontogenesis. From stage 36 of embryogenesis, the selective radioautographic labelling, significant of atritiated indoleamines storage, was located in the distal part of the epiphysis. From stage 36 to 40 (just before hatching) and 3 days after hatching, microscopic and microphotometric studies point out, in the epiphysis epithelium, a highly significant increase in tritiated infoleamines rate. In contrast, the weak nonspecific reactions, in the neighbouring brain structures (dorsal telencephalon, tectum opticum and paraphysis), stay constant. The metabolism and storage sites of indoleamines belong to sensory line cells. During ontogenesis, these sites appear successively in distal, middle and proximal epiphysis and from the basal to the upper part of the sensory line cells. The embryonic parietal eye, in spite of structural analogies, does not take up the radioactive compound.

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Invasive species are one of the main causes of biodiversity loss worldwide. As introduced, populations may increase in abundance and expand geographical range, so does the potential for negative impacts on native communities. As such, it is necessary to understand the processes driving range expansion, before a species becomes established in new areas. Through an investigation into capacity for population growth and range expansion of introduced populations of a non-native lizard, we aimed to demonstrate how multi-scale factors influence spatial spread, population growth, and invasion potential in introduced species. The Italian Wall Lizard (Podarcis siculus) was introduced multiple times to the United States with extant populations in California, Kansas, New Jersey, and New York. Recently, a single specimen was discovered in British Columbia, Canada, and unstudied populations are on Orcas Island and Missouri (USA). We used phylogenetic analysis of mtDNA sequences (cytb gene) of individuals sampled from these introduced populations and across the native range to identify potential source populations. Our phylogenetic analysis result with documentation of the introductions revealed that the Canadian individual is derived from the Tuscany clade (together with samples from Kansas and New York). The New Jersey population is likely from the Adriatic clade and the Californian one from Sicily. The Orcas Island and Missouri populations still require study. Consequently, humans are key drivers of the distribution of alien reptiles in North America, but the distributions are determined by a complex interplay between human activities, geographic factors and species features. Genetic evidence is essential for reliable biogeographic assessment of invasive species, particularly in systems with a long history of human influence.

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Biological invasions by amphibian and reptile species (i.e. herpetofauna) are numerous and widespread, having caused severe impacts on ecosystems, the economy and human health. However, there remains no synthesised assessment of the economic costs of these invasions. Therefore, using the most comprehensive database on the economic costs of invasive alien species worldwide (InvaCost), we analyse the costs caused by invasive alien herpetofauna according to taxonomic, geographic, sectoral and temporal dimensions, as well as the types of these costs. The cost of invasive herpetofauna totaled at 17.0 billion US$ between 1986 and 2020, divided split into 6.3 billion US$ for amphibians, 10.4 billion US$ for reptiles and 334 million US$ for mixed classes. However, these costs were associated predominantly with only two species (brown tree snake Boiga irregularis and American bullfrog Lithobates catesbeianus), with 10.3 and 6.0 billion US$ in costs, respectively. Costs for the remaining 19 reported species were relatively minor (< 0.6 billion US$), and they were entirely unavailable for over 94% of known invasive herpetofauna worldwide. Also, costs were positively correlated with research effort, suggesting research biases towards well-known taxa. So far, costs have been dominated by predictions and extrapolations (79%), and thus empirical observations for impact were relatively scarce. The activity sector most affected by amphibians was authoritiesstakeholders through management (> 99%), while for reptiles, impacts were reported mostly through damages to mixed sectors (65%). Geographically, Oceania and Pacific Islands recorded 63% of total costs, followed by Europe (35%) and North America (2%). Cost reports have generally increased over time but peaked between 2011 and 2015 for amphibians and 2006 to 2010 for reptiles. A greater effort in studying the costs of invasive herpetofauna is necessary for a more complete understanding of invasion impacts of these species. We emphasise the need for greater control and prevention policies concerning the spread of current and future invasive herpetofauna.

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Space is a limited resource in which many animals need to perform basic functions such as feeding and reproducing. Competition over access to space can induce a variety of behaviours that may result in differential access to crucial resources related to survival and fitness. The Aegean wall lizard, Podarcis erhardii, is a colour-polymorphic lizard that inhabits dry stone walls where they access food, safely thermoregulate, shelter from predators and interact with other lizards. Many colour-polymorphic species have morphs with distinct behavioural strategies, which may play a role in morph evolution and maintenance. Here, we conducted the first behavioural experiments on P. erhardii colour morphs. Our goal was to compare morph competitive ability and characterize morph differences in social behaviours using laboratory contest experiments over limited heated space on a stone wall in a neutral arena. Contest experiments revealed that colour morph, not size, predicted intermorph contest outcomes. White and yellow morphs were associated with winning and the orange morph was associated with losing contests. Male colour morphs exhibited different levels of aggressive, boldness, chemical signalling and visual signalling behaviours depending on which morph they were in contest with. White morphs always performed aggressive and scent-marking behaviours more frequently during contests with other morphs. Yellow morphs performed aggressive, bold, chemical signalling and visual signalling behaviours at intermediate frequencies relative to other morphs. Orange morphs performed aggressive behaviours equally often when in contest with yellow morphs but performed all other behaviours less frequently against yellow and white morphs. Considering these results, behavioural variation among P. erhardii colour morphs may promote morph maintenance.

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The present paper contains the results of a 7 year faunistical study upon the amphibian and reptile species from the Bistriţa river basin. We recorded 14 species of amphibians (Salamandra salamandra, Triturus cristatus, Lissotriton vulgaris, Lissotriton montandoni, Mesotriton alpestris, Bombina bombina, Bombina variegata, Hyla arborea, Rana dalmatina, Rana temporaria, Pelophylax ridibundus, Bufo bufo, Bufo viridis, Pelobates fuscus), 3 types of hybrids between amphibians (L. vulgaris X L. montandoni, Pelophylax kl. esculentus and B. bombina X B. variegata) and 10 species of reptiles (Anguis fragilis, Podarcis muralis, Lacerta agilis, Lacerta viridis, Zootoca vivipara, Emys orbicularis, Coronella austriaca, Natrix natrix, Zamenis longissimus, Vipera berus).

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Context Disentangling the effect of environment and biological interaction on community composition with observational data, within the environmental filtering framework, is challenging because the two processes produce non independent results. Objectives Adopting community N-mixture models with symmetric interactions, we aimed at estimating differential effects of landscape structure and biotic interactions on the local abundance of a Mediterranean reptile community including four lizards (Lacerta bilineata; Podarcis siculus; P. muralis; Chalcides chalcides) and two snakes (Hierophis viridiflavus; Natrix Helvetica). Methods We sampled reptiles for three consecutive years (2019–2021; 4 surveys/year) on 52 linear transects on a Mediterranean coastal landscape. We analyzed count data by means of a multi-species N-mixture model with symmetric interactions. Interactions within pair of species were estimated from the residual correlation of their realized abundances, after accounting for four landscape features: landscape heterogeneity calculated from land cover data, edge density of woody vegetation patches, tree cover density, net primary productivity. Results Most species displayed very low detection probability (p ~ 0.10). All species responded with different intensity and sensitivity to landscape predictors. Two biological interactions resulted significant: L. bilineata and P. siculus showed a positive interaction, while P. muralis and C. chalcides displayed a negative interaction. Conclusions Using community N-mixture models we demonstrated that, also with observational data obtained from a realized community, partitioning the filtering process of the landscape from the one of biotic interactions is possible.

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Von 12 überwiegend aus Südwestdeutschland stammenden Zauneidechsen (Lacerta agilis), die mindestens 5 und maximal 21, Jahre im Freilandterrarium lebten, wurden die Häutungsdaten registriert. Zwei langjährig gehaltene Eidechsen unterschiedlichen Geschlechts häuteten sich im ersten Jahr nach dem Schlupf 6x, im zweiten Jahr 5x und später durchschnittlich 4x im Jahr. Bei den 6 Männchen war die mittlere jährliche Häutungsrate 4,7, bei den Weibchen 3,8. Die individuellen Unterschiede in der Häutungsfrequenz waren bei den 6 Weibchen klein (alle bei 4x), bei den 6 Männchen dagegen erheblich (zwischen 4 und 5,5x). Im jahreszeitlichen Ablauf liegen die Häutungsdaten der Weibchen deutlich später als die der Männchen. Das erste Häutungsintervall ist bei den Weibchen viel länger, was mit der Eiablage zusammenhängt. Im Fall einer zweiten Eiablage im Jahr wird auch das zweite Intervall deutlich verlängert. Die erste Häutung im Jahr, die von den Wetterbedingungen abhängig ist, beeinflusst die folgenden Häutungsdaten, weil es einen allgemeinen Häutungsrhythmus gibt. Artgenossen des gleichen Geschlechts haben im selben Jahr meistens ähnliche Häutungsdaten. Die Intervalle zwischen den Häutungen sind von der Temperatur abhängig.

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Die Mauereidechse (Podarcis muralis) wurde im Bundesland Salzburg erstmals im Jahr 2008 nachgewiesen und hat sich seitdem punktuell entlang des Bahnliniennetzes ausgebreitet. Im Zuge dieser Arbeit wurde untersucht, wie heimische Zauneidechsen (Lacerta agilis) in einem anthropogenen Habitat auf die Besiedlung durch allochthone Mauereidechsen reagieren. Untersuchungsgebiet ist ein knapp 300 m langer, mit Mauern stabilisierter Bahndammabschnitt in der Stadt Salzburg, zu dem seit 2013 quantitative Daten zur Herpetofauna vorliegen und wo 2015 auch die Mauereidechse eingewandert ist. Von März bis September 2027 wurden im Untersuchungsgebiet Daten über Abundanz, Alter und genutzte Mikrohabitate der beiden Eidechsenarten gesammelt. Zudem wurden alle zum Gebiet vorliegenden Daten aus der Salzburger Biodiversitätsdatenbank von 2072 bis 2020 abgefragt und ausgewertet. Die Daten zeigen eine klare Differenz in den genutzten Mikrohabitaten der beiden Arten: Während 80,6% der Mauereidechsen direkt auf Steinmauern beobachtet wurden, wurden 83,8% der Zauneidechsen in bewachsenen Hangbereichen gesichtet. Die Gesamtzahl der im Untersuchungsgebiet beobachteten Mauereidechsen ist seit dem ersten Nachweis 2015 stetig gestiegen und 2021 konnten bis zu 277 lndividuen gleichzeitig beobachtet werden. Die Abundanz der Zauneidechse im Gebiet ist mit maximal neun Individuen deutlich niedriger. Die Zauneidechsen-Population zeigt jedoch Reproduktionserfolg und scheint auf niedrigem Niveau stabil.

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In this work I summarize available informations on the size of populations and densities of Common Wall Lizard Podarcis muralis (Laurenti, 1768) in Europe and my own data from fieldwork in Strejčkuv lom quarry near Grygov. I present a map of spots where individuals were captured, and photographic database of individuals living in the studied locality. The database will be used to reveal possible recaptures in future. All lizards were captured in the season of 2018 (April to October) and Spring 2019. The locality studied is one of the 3 locations in Czech Republic where this species occures. Total of 36 individuals were captured, 22 of which were male, 9 female and 5 juveniles. Total of 9 recaptures were yet recorded.

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The European green lizard, Lacerta viridis, is in the Bohemia region stated as critically endangered species. Populations in this region are located beyond the northern border of continuous range of this species and are closely related to the „riverine phenomenon“, and deeply engorged river valleys. The chosen locality in Tiché údolí is a subject to a long-term conservational management aimed to strengthen and maintain abundance of the local population. This management is a direct output of a previous study of this population performed in years 1995-1997. Main goal of the presented study is to compare current population characteristics with the older study. The locality has been visited 119 times in years from 2011 to 2014. The studied population now displays higher abundance and inhabits a larger area. The author also performed a spatial analysis of the places with presence of an observed individual in order to determine and evaluate significance of the chosen abiotic factors for habitat discrimination. The results indicate that positive discrimination is based on the presence of a rock debris and a hiding place. Strongest factors towards negative discrimination were high percentages of grass and high vegetation coverage. This study also contains and discusses ecological, ethological and morphological data collected during the period of the research. Key words: European green lizard, Lacerta viridis, Tiché údolí, riverine phenomenon, spatial analysis, microhabitat, DFA, population characteristics.

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Habitat loss is the main threat to biodiversity. Modified landscapes resulting from habitat loss are characterized by a reduced amount and patchy distribution of habitat, and by changes in landscape composition and landscape configuration (spatial relations between landscape elements). Populations inhabiting such landscapes face reduced connectivity and gene flow, population decline, higher vulnerability to stochastic processes, and eventually, extinction. Ecological specialization is one of the main traits predicting vulnerability of species to habitat loss. It has been mainly studied at the species level, with insights at the intraspecific level being barely addressed in the habitat loss literature. The Kühnelt principle of regional stenoecy states that the range of colonizable habitats and suitable conditions is wider at the core of the distribution range of species compared to the periphery. Then, populations living at the core are habitat generalist, and those in the periphery habitat specialist. This implies that peripheral populations would have a higher sensibility to habitat loss compared to populations at the core, and also that different conservation measures are necessary to protect the species in each region. The study of occupancy patterns of habitat patches across modified landscapes is one of the most useful tools to study effects of habitat loss on the persistence of populations, and can be applied to test differential sensitivity to habitat loss among populations of the same species in different regions. On the other hand, because this approach depends on the extinction of populations to find patterns and effects, in order to identify vulnerable population before they irreversibly decline, morphological and physiological parameters representative of the status of individuals have also been proposed to be used as early warning indicators of populations’ stress. In this project I combined extensive fieldwork with advanced methods in landscape ecology and statistics to study populations of the eastern green lizard Lacerta viridis located at the core (Bulgaria) and at the northern periphery of its distribution range (Germany, Czech Republic). L. viridis is protected under the EU Habitats Directive and is threatened to extinction in Germany and Czech Republic. The objectives of this research are to test the Kühnelt principle, evaluate if predictions of specialization at the species level regarding effects of habitat loss on occupancy patterns are also met at the intraspecific level, and evaluate the suitability of morphological and physiological parameters as early indicators of populations stress. My results show that peripheral populations of L. viridis are specialist in comparison to core ones, have a smaller niche size and select microhabitats based on different environmental parameters regions (Chapter 3). Specialization predictions of vulnerability to habitat loss were also met at the intraspecific level. In the periphery, in comparison to the core, populations depended more on habitat quality, the effects of individual landscape composition predictors were stronger and overall habitat loss had an impact at smaller scales. Moreover, regions differed in the parameters of landscape structure that affected occupancy patterns the most (Chapter 4). Finally, I identified two parameters of individual status -body condition and fluctuating asymmetry- that are suitable to be used as early indicators of stress for populations of L. viridis inhabiting modified landscapes (Chapter 5). This dissertation is a contribution to the knowledge of the ecology of L. viridis and to the improvement of conservation measures to protect the species across its range. This work also broadens the knowledge about intraspecific regional differences in ecological traits of species and the application of traits at the intraspecific level to predict geographically-dependent populations’ sensibility to habitat loss.

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Intraspecific colour morphs usually differ in more traits than just colour. These traits can manifest as differences in morph physiology, behaviour, and ecology. Ecological differences among colour morphs, such as the degree of parasitism, can influence the evolution, maintenance, and loss of morphs from populations. High ectoparasite load can directly and deleteriously impact host fitness, and thus could influence colour morph persistence in populations if certain morphs are more frequently exposed to parasites or are more susceptible to parasitism. The Aegean wall lizard, Podarcis erhardii, is a colour polymorphic island lizard that is parasitized externally by ticks and mites. These ectoparasites can affect aspects of host lizard behaviour and physiology – including thermoregulation and body mass – and therefore are an important factor influencing the ecology and fitness of P. erhardii. We find that among sympatric colour morphs, ectoparasite loads differ; namely, monochromatic orange morphs have the highest numbers of ectoparasites, and in general, morphs with orange alleles (orange, orange-white, and orange-yellow) are more heavily parasitized by ticks and mites than the other morphs. Our results indicate that morphs with orange alleles tend to occupy microhabitats with significantly more vegetation cover and thus may increase their exposure to ticks and mites. Ecological differences between morphs could be an important factor contributing to demonstrated patterns of orange morph rarity and loss in P. erhardii populations.

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The European green lizard, Lacerta viridis (Laurenti, 1768), is listed in the Czech Republic as critically endangered. Its distribution in the Bohemia region is restricted to small isolated local populations which are located beyond the northern border of continuous range of this species and are closely related to very specific habitats. Populations in southern Moravia form the northwestern boundary of the continuous distribution of the species. Based on the statewide database of the Czech Nature Conservation Agency, we created a predictive model and determined key factors influencing the species distribution in the Czech Republic. The most relevant factors were: annual precipitation, terrain slope, average temperature of the warmest quarter and precipitation in the coldest quarter. The model is well compatible with published data on Lacerta viridis distribution in the Czech Republic and is applicable in both theory and practice of the species conservation – e.g. focusing faunistic research to certain areas, critical analysis of controversial presence reports and as an input for species management in the form of repatriation and introduction.