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We presented data on reproductive traits of the rare parthenogenetic species Darevskia rostombekowi from the surroundings of the city in Dilijan and on the southern shore of the lake Sevan. Comparison of two populations showed that the length of the body of adult lizards from the Sevan population was significantly higher (p <0.01) than from the Dilijan population (51.75 ± 0.75). Lizards of the two populations do not differ in the number of eggs, they laid eggs in the laboratory in the 20-26 June, 2017, and hatching takes place in the period 08 -10 August 2017, the development of eggs was 45-47 days. Newbornlizardshadabodylengthof 26-27 mm.

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Darevskia valentini is the most widely distributed species among the Caucasian rock lizard but the phylogenetic relationship among geographically distant populations is poorly known. W sequenced several mitochondrial (12S rRNA, COI an cyt b) andnuclear (MC1R and cmos) genes from 75 individual samples collected across Central and Eastern Turkey. In total, 349 bp of 12S rRNA, 615 bp of COI, 743 bp of cyt b of mtDNA and 620 bp of MC1R, 326 bp of cmos of nDNA were obtained. Additionally, 34 individuals from Georgia and Eastern Turkey were genotyped for 10 microsatellite loci. Phylogenetic analyses (ML and BI) produced trees with similar topologies including well-supported clades. One clade found in the area of Lake Van is clearly separated from others on the phylogenetic tree, and the respective population formed distinct STRUCTURE and PCA clusters in the microsatellite data. Our results may suggest that D. valentini, one of the most complex species in Darevskia genus, needs taxonomical revision at the subspecies level.

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Since the 1930’s introductions of wall lizards took place in Passau, Bavaria, Germany. 80 years later this population has to be considered as the world’s largest introduced wall lizard population. It has extended its range about 30 km along a railway, now trespassing the Austrian border. Using DNA barcoding, we assigned the population to a geographically distinct evolutionary lineage which can be found in southern-most Slovenia, north-western Croatia, and the eastern part of the Po Plain (so-called Venetian Clade). Morphology suggests that, in concordance with mtDNA data, the source population stems from the Bologna-Modena area. To reconstruct the invasion history of the population a total of 165 individuals were genotyped at 13 microsatellite loci. In order to investigate routes of expansion wall lizards were sampled every 5 km along a transect, covering the whole invasive range of this population. First results indicate a rapid expansion of the population.

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According to animal signalling theory, social costs incurred by aggressive conspecifics are one mechanism maintaining signal honesty. Although our understanding of signal evolution has much improved for pigment-based colours, the mechanisms maintaining the honesty of structural colour signals, such as ultraviolet (UV), remain elusive. Here, we used the common lizard (Zootoca vivipara) to test whether the honesty of UV-reflecting signals displayed on male throats is under social control. To do so, we staged agonistic interactions between non-manipulated focal males and opponents of either larger or smaller body size. We manipulated the UV component of the male throat colour patch to create small cheaters with UV-enhanced throats, large cheaters with UV-reduced throats, and their respective controls. In support of a conventional signal hypothesis, focal males were aggressive towards large cheaters and became submissive when these large cheaters retaliated, and were less submissive against small cheaters. However, that focal males were not more aggressive towards small cheaters contradicts our initial predictions. We confirm that male UV reflectance and bite force were good predictors of contest outcomes in control conditions. Overall, we provide partial evidence suggesting that social costs enforce UV signal honesty in common lizards.

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The ability to recognize chemical cues from predatory snakes is congenital in the common lizard Lacerta vivipara. This conclusion follows from a series of experiments in which we observed the behavior of naive lab-born lizards in terraria that had previously been inhabited by predatory snakes. Chemicals from both the viper Vipera berus (a sympatric predator) and the smooth snake Coronella austriaca (an allopatric saurophagic snake) elicited a sharp increase in tongue-flick rates. The lizards, when confronted with snake chemicals, exhibited an increased number of foot shakes, tail vibrations and starts, and moved about in a strange, jerky way. In these aspects, the behavioral response of juvenile lizards resembled that of adults. The only quantitative age-related difference concerned thermoregulatory be havior: whereas juveniles refrained almost completely from basking in the presence of snake chemicals, adult lizards basked equally long in snake and control experiments.

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Deciphering how species and phenotypic diversity emerge is a major objective of evolutionary research, with important implications for our capacity to protect biodiversity. A powerful tool to understand how historical and contemporary processes influencethe evolution of biodiversity is to combine phylogenetic inferences with information on phenotypic traits which reflect ecological responses to the environment. Podarcis wall lizards are a symbolic element of Mediterranean ecosystems, and their evolution is representative of the complex biogeographic and climatic history of this region. Their phylogenetic relationships have long puzzled European herpetologists, due to a basal polytomy, which may point to a quick radiation early in the history of the group. We combined a phylogenetic hypothesis inferred based on mitochondrial and nuclear genes and a series of morphological and functional traits, to test whether there are signs of an adaptive radiation in thi genus of Mediterranean lizards. The cladogenetic pattern is in accordance with a scenario of a fast diversification early in the history of the genus, with the emergence of new lineages slowing down through time. However, phenotypic traits provide mixed evidence: while body size seems to have evolved under random processes, relative head size and limb length, as well as sprinting capacity, bare signs of adaptive evolution. Interestingly, though, our results do not support a scenario of an early burst of phenotypic diversification under an adaptive radiation in this group. Instead, phenotypic evolution may have rather proceeded in response to other ecological factors, such as insularity or habitat use.

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The species introductions already constitute one of the major threats to biodiversity worldwide. Determining the origin of such aliens is the irst step to develop successful strategies of prevention and minimisation. The Italian wall lizard, Podarcis sicula, is a lacertid predominantly present in the central Mediterranean region, also inhabiting Sardinia, Sicily and Corsica as well as on many Adriatic islands. It frequently occurs in humanized areas, but is really fast and shy compared to other lacertids. Several scatered populations have been reported across the Mediterranean basin, namely Toulon in France, Istanbul and Marmara Islands in Turkey, Tunis and Tripoli in North Africa, and Menorca in Spain where is the dominant lizard. Experimental evidence has demonstrated behavioural interference and competitive exclusion of congeneric species and instances of hybridisation between introduced populations and other local Podarcis are also known. This suggests that the introduction of this species may be highly harmful for the local biota. In the Iberian Peninsula, populations of undetermined origin are currently known from three coastal populations with very contrasting climatic conditions. Namely, those in Almeria city (SE Spain) and Noja beach (Santander, N Spain) are suspected to be old (40-50 years ago) whereas that in Lisbon (SW Portugal) is a more recent (end of 90’s). Here we assess the origin of all three populations using the cytochrome b gene by putting sequences generated together with those published for the species both in its autochthonous range and in other introduces populations. Results are discussed in the context of the phylogeography of the species and its invasive character.

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1. In the past decades, nocturnal temperatures have been playing a disproportionate role in the global warming of the planet. Yet, they remain a neglected factor in studies assessing the impact of global warming on natural populations. 2. Here, we question whether an intense augmentation of nocturnal temperatures is beneficial or deleterious to ectotherms. Physiological performance is influenced by thermal conditions in ectotherms and an increase in temperature by only 2°C is sufficient to induce a disproportionate increase in metabolic expenditure. Warmer nights may expand ectotherms` species thermal niche and open new opportunities for prolonged activities and improve foraging efficiency. However, increased activity may also have deleterious effects on energy balance if exposure to warmer nights reduces resting periods and elevates resting metabolic rate. 3. We assessed whether warmer nights affected an individual`s growth, dorsal skin colouration, thermoregulation behaviour, oxidative stress status and parasite load by exposing yearling common lizards (Zootoca vivipara) from four populations to either ambient or high nocturnal temperatures for approximately 5weeks. 4. Warmer nocturnal temperatures increased the prevalence of ectoparasitic infestation and altered allocation of resources towards structural growth rather than storage. We found no change in markers for oxidative stress. The thermal treatment did not influence thermal preferences, but influenced dorsal skin brightness and luminance, in line with a predicted acclimation response in colder environments to enhance heat gain from solar radiation. 5. Altogether, our results highlight the importance of considering nocturnal warming as an independent factor affecting ectotherms` life history in the context of global climate change.

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The study of flower visitor behavior and pollen transport dynamics within and between plants can be of great importance, especially for threatened or rare plant species. In this work, we aim to assess the flower visitor assemblage of the Madeiran endemic Echium candicans and evaluate the performance of the most common visitors through the analysis of their foraging behavior and pollen loads. The flower visitor assemblage of E. candicans is diverse, including several insect groups and the endemic lizard Teira dugesii, but bees are the most common visitors. In general, large bees (Amegilla quadrifasciata, Apis mellifera, and Bombus spp.) had the highest average visitation rates (>18 flowers/min) and their pollen loads had higher percentages of homospecific pollen (>66%) when compared with butterflies and hoverflies. The honeybee (Apis mellifera) and two bumblebees (Bombus terrestris and B. ruderatus) were the most efficient flower visitors of E. candicans, but their foraging behavior seems to favor geitonogamy. Other visitors, such as butterflies and the small bee Lasioglossum wollastoni, may have a complementary role to the honeybee and bumblebee species, as their high mobility is associated with fewer flower visits on each plant and may promote xenogamy. Two non-native bees (A. mellifera and B. ruderatus) are important flower visitors of E. candicans and may contribute mostly to self-pollination rendering the endemic plant more vulnerable to inbreeding effects.

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Recent studies evidenced brain lateralization in ectotherms occurs and propose that the right eye/left hemisphere is involved in predatory behavior while food searching while the left eye/right hemisphere seems to control predator monitoring, making lateralized individuals able to carry out both tasks simultaneously. However, most of these studies are based on a single species (among reptiles Podarcis muralis), and these results are assumed as general. Here we studied the lateral component of the escape behavior in three diferent lineages of the Podarcis hispanica species complex. A total of 10 male and 10 female adults were tested 10 times using a “T” design, during two diferent days (ive races per day). Statistical analysis was made using Log Linear analysis. The results showed that, although, there is lateralization in escape behavior, it varied between the studied lineages. While the irst one lineage present ≈80% of right preference, the second one present ≈ 60% and the third one lineage tested showed ≈ 50% of preference to the right part. Interaction between lineage*side was statistically signiicant whereas, no diferences in the interactions sex*side, and sex*lineage*side were found. Result advise against generalizing results on lateralization tests and recommend broader comparative research on this topic. In addition, the possibility that the individual learning between subsequent races, of escape behavior, is discussed.

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Vertebrate pests cause significant economic loss in several agricultural crops worldwide; therefore, their populations are often controlled through culling. Correctly identifying the main species responsible for the damage is essential to avoid persecuting the wrong targets, yet it is challenging. During 2016 and 2017, we tested the usefulness of camera-trapping (CT) in Terceira Island, Azores, Portugal to identify vertebrate pests. Vineyard owners in this region cull the Azores woodpigeon (Columba palumbus azorica), the common pigeon (Columba livia), the house sparrow (Passer domesticus), the Azores blackbird (Turdus merula azorensis), and the Madeira wall lizard (Teira dugesii) to reduce damage to grapes. Using CT photos and videos, we identified nine species damaging the grape, but four of those were only observed occasionally (< 10 consumption events over 2years). The Madeira lizard (371.09 and 232.47 consumption events100-CT-days in 2016 and 2017, respectively), the house sparrow (284.01 and 21.73 consumption events100-CT-days in 2016 and 2017, respectively), and the Azores blackbird (17.35 and 8.23 consumption events100-CT-days in 2016 and 2017, respectively) had the most frequent consumption events. All three species were most active in the morning (8:00–9:00) and in the afternoon (16:00–17:00 for the Madeira lizard and the house sparrow, and 18:00–19:00 for the Azores blackbird). We demonstrated the advantage of using CT in cultivated habitats to provide valuable information about the identity, behaviour, daily-activity patterns, and relative consumption rates of vineyard pests. We also provided evidence that the endemic Azores woodpigeon and the common pigeon should not be targeted by the farmers in Terceira.

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Ex situ conservation of animal populations may benefit from captive-breeding programmes, but these are criticised because they are assumed to be difficult, time-consuming and expensive, while they do not guarantee success. However, such assumptions remain untested in most organisms; for example, introductions could be very useful for recovering populations of small-sized species with short generation time, no learned behaviours, and ease to rear in captivity. Here, we document an easy, cheap and successful reintroduction programme of the lacertid lizard Psammodromus algirus. Two captive-bred cohorts (178 juveniles in 2001 and 187 in 2002) were released in four woodland fragments (0.9–5.2 ha) at two localities (B and V); B housed a stable lizard population whereas V apparently lacked a viable population of lizards. We monitored introduced and native lizards during 2002 and 2003, and carried out a corroborative searching in 2006 which confirmed the existence of a lizard population at site V. Introduced lizards had higher activity and dispersed more frequently among woodland fragments than native ones. Survivorship and growth rates were similar for both groups, but introduced juveniles were about 25% larger than native ones, due to both early hatching and better rearing conditions. The whole procedure was easily implemented in our Faculty facilities (mean hatching and hatchling survival rates of 0.90 and 0.87), and cost less than 20,000 € (excluding salaries). Therefore, similar programmes may be of wide application in small animals and of practical importance for species with a meta-population structure living in fragmented landscapes.

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Form and function have always intrigued biologists, as they constitute a key element of the evolutionary history of organisms. Under the ecomorphological paradigm, differences in morphological traits result in differences in performance which in turn translate into variation in fitness in a given environment. Understanding how such evolutionary associations emerge at the microevolutionary level (i.e. across individuals of a species) and then scale up to shape macroevolutionary patterns (i.e. across species) has long been a challenge in evolutionary biology. In the Mediterranean Basin, wall lizards (Podarcis spp.) are an intriguing model system for investigating the evolutionar meaning of phenotypic traits and their relationship with performance, due to their elevated variability and their occurrence in a diversity of both natural and anthropized habitats. We examined locomotion and bite force, and severa morphological traits relevant for functional performance for several species of wall lizards. We then obtained F-matrix statistics that describe the association between form and function within (intraspecific) and across species (interspecific). We also used pairwise Mantel tests to investigate the functional divergence among species and to study whether these were in accordance with clade-level phenotype-performance relationships. Mantel tests on intraspecific F-matrices suggested some degree of functional divergence among species. Our results also showed that intra- and interspecific F-matrices provide different information, where phenotype-performance relationships often do not coincide across analytical levels. Overall, our results suggest that phenotype-performance relationships may vary substantially across species and evolutionary scales.

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Sexual dimorphism (SD) in locomotor performance is prominent in many species of lizards. This functional pattern is related to both size and shape SD and it has been associated to sexual selection on males, related to territorial behaviour. Locomotor capacities of lacertid lizards are related to habitat variation, following ecomorphological predictions, but SD has not been extensively investigated. The few existing studies have indicated a lack of SD in this respect. We investigated SD in locomotor performance and its relation to morphological traits in a population of Podarcis bocagei, a species endemic to the Iberian Peninsula. We measured sprinting, climbing and clambering speed, as well as manoeuvrability, of adult male and female P. bocagei in a racing track. We also quantiied body size and shape, including characters potentially relevant for locomotion, in the same individuals. Our results indicate that while SD in performance is not signiicant when looking at each locomotor component separately, diferences between sexes are signiicant when treating the data in a multivariate framework. This is due to diferences between sexes in the trade-ofs between conditions: while females are relatively stable across designs, males are fast sprinters, but sufer a visible reduction of their locomotor capacity when climbing or serpentizing. Fitting biomechanical predictions and previous observations, the morphological variables associated to locomotor performance are total body size and limb length. Our study suggests that signiicant, but previously unnoticed, SD may exist in locomotor performance in lacertids and remarks the importance of multivariate analyses when examining performance capacities.

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The co-occurrence of the lizards Podarcis muralis and P. siculus is frequent but anecdotally reported in the literature, mostly as side notes of their complex ecology and life history. There are a few studies on the interactions between these two species, but these are old or focalized only on individual populations. This research aims to fill and enlighten the possible competitive interactions between P. muralis and P. siculus when they share a microhabitat. Being a base researh, which is not founded on previous works, every result will be an important contribution to the study of these two lizards. We have observed a clear trend in P. muralis associated with the elongation of the jaw in the syntopic population of Calci while their body size remains unchanged between syntopic and allopatric populations. This differentiation causes an overlap in jaw length between the two species and the sharing of the same range of variation for this character. Hence, in syntopy, they are not distinguishable at all if we base our discrimination only on the length of the jaw, contrary to the common situation where P. siculus head-length outmeasures P. muralis. Syntopic P. muralis are instead well discriminable from their allopatric populations. For the first time, we provide comparative data from different populations, both in allopatry and in syntopy. Our preliminary results suggest a diversification only in head morphology (convergent character displacement) in the area of co-occurrence, hence a proxy of a history of co-evolution that shape the relationship of these two species.

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Coexisting species may experience population and range changes alone or jointly in response to environmental change. Here, we used six climate variables and ten modeling algorithms to predict the distribution of two Takydromus species (T. septentrionalis and T. sexlineatus) in China. We identified the sympatric and allopatric areas by comparing projections between the two species based on habitat suitability under present and future climate scenarios. We constructed the hypervolumes of six climate variables for the two species and then evaluated overlaps between hypervolumes. From this study, we know the following. First, minimum temperature of coldest month contributes the most to the prediction of habitat suitability. Second, habitats suitable for the two species will shift northward in response to climate warming. Third, the range of T. sexlineatus will expand across the four future time intervals before 2,100, namely the 2021–2040, 2041–2060, 2061–2080, and 2081–2100 intervals, under both Shared socioeconomic pathway (SSP) 245 and SSP585 scenarios, and the range of T. septentrionalis will also expand in the future except at the 2081–2100 interval under the SSP585 scenario. Fourth, the sympatric areas will contract or expand under the SSP245 scenario and expand across the four future time intervals before 2,100 under the SSP585 scenario. Fifth, the niche hypervolumes of the two species partially overlapped, and the differences in niche centroid show some degree of niche differentiation between the two species. These results allow to conclude that climate warming will not only drive the northward drift of sympatric areas but also increase the size of these areas if nothing is done to limit the emission of greenhouse gases. Given the existence of hybridization and introgression between T. septentrionalis and T. sexlineatus in the field where they coexist, we also conclude that climate warming will increase chances of hybridization and introgression between the two species.

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This bachelor thesis is focused on the population of the Common Wall Lizard (Podarcis muralis) occuring in Strejckuv Quarry near Grygov. In Czech Republic, the species is known from only four localities. The main objectives are search of available sources, which brings morphology data of Europe populations and to carry out my own morphometric research of the population. The research took place in the locality of Strejčkův Quarry in Grygov in years 2018 – 2019. As a result, 36 individuals were captured (22 males, 9 females and 5 juveniles). The average SVL of males was 58.86mm and 56.56mm for females. The SVL of juveniles ranged 29 – 41mm.

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Competition between species can lead to ecological and evolutionary differentiation of species. The Italian wall lizard (Podarcis siculus) is a generalist species with broad ecological tolerance and frequently excludes other small lizards. The areals of Podarcis siculus and Podarcis melisellensis sometimes overlap and when that happens P. siculus overpowers P. melisellensis. In order to better understand the behaviour of both species and to explore whether differentiation in behaviour can explain dominant-subordinate interaction between these two species, we tested 28 individuals of each species, of both sexes, in open field and radial maze. Both experiments lasted 15 to 23 minutes and were repeated 3 times in order to habituate the lizard to the new environment. Lizards’ performance in novel and familiar habitat (after habituation) was measured and analysed for potential dispersal and explorative behaviour, cautiousness, risk to predation and food consumption. We hypothesized that P. siculus, as a dominant competitor, wouldshow greater dispersal and explorative behaviour, be more cautious and less prone to predation and would consume more food. As expected, P. siculus showed greater dispersal and explorative behaviour in both open field and radial maze and ate more food. Also, P. siculus was more cautious and less prone to predation. These results show that different behaviour can help competitors persevere and outcompete other individuals in ecologically competitive relationships.

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The Aeolian wall lizard Podarcis raffonei is an island endemic that survives only on three tiny islets, and on the Capo Grosso peninsula of the Vulcano island, thus is among the European vertebrates with the smallest range and one of the most threatened by extinction. This species is declining due to competition and hybridization with the non-native lizard Podarcis siculus, but a regular monitoring program is lacking. Here we assessed the size and status of the Capo Grosso population of P. raffonei on Vulcano. In September 2015 we captured 30 individuals showing the typical brown phenotype of P. raffonei, while one single male showed a green phenotype, apparently intermediate between P. raffonei and the non-native Podarcis siculus. In May 2017, only 47% of 131 individuals showed the typical brown phenotype (P. raffonei-like) and 53% showed the green phenotype (P. siculus-like). Based on N-mixture models and removal sampling the estimated size of the Capo Grosso population was of 800–1300 individuals in 2017, being similar to 2015; available data suggest that the total range of the species could be as small as 2 ha. The frequency of individuals with the typical P. raffonei phenotype dramatically dropped between two samplings with a parallel increase of individuals displaying the green phenotype. Observation on outdoor captive bred individuals demonstrates plasticity for colouration in P. raffonei individuals from Capo Grosso, with several individuals showing the typical brown pattern in September 2017 and a green pattern in March 2021. Non-exclusive hypotheses, including hybridization with P. siculus and plasticity in colour pattern of P. raffonei, are discussed to explain the phenotypic shifts of the P. raffonei population of Capo Grosso. While genomic evidence is required to reach conclusions and investigate eventual hybridization, it is urgent to undertake a programme for the monitoring and management of this lizard.

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Parasites are important drivers shaping animal populations by affecting growth, performance, reproductive successand survival. In sympatric related host species, parasites may shape their interspecific interaction and vice-versa - the intensity of parasite infection and parasitemia couldbe influenced by beforementioned interactions. Members of the genus Hepatozoon (Apicomplexa, Adeleorina) are the most common and widely distributed intracellular parasites oflizards. In this work we studied the parasitization patterns of tw lizard species, Iberolacerta horvathi and Podarcis muralis, ranging Slovenia either in sympatry or in allopatry. We used the 18S rRNA gene to confirm parasite identity an identify potential new haplotype an estimated prevalenc and intensity using microscopy. Then, we tested for the effect of host species, geographic region, body size sex and sympatry/allopatry on these parameters. Preliminary results show significant differences in parasite prevalence and intensity among localities, as well as differences in parasite intensity both among localities and host species. This one of the first studies examining the blood parasites in Slovene reptiles combining microscop and molecular methods, and as such expands our knowledge on parasite diversity, their possible impact in this region and the interaction patterns betwee both lizard species. In addition, the study recovers the variation between sympatry and allopatry as a way of understanding coexistence of two lizard species occupying a similar ecological niche.

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Species interactions are complex processes derived from a combination of organisms’ physiological predispositions and their behavioural and ecological traits combined with their spatial and temporal distribution. Understanding interspeciic interactions between two lacertid species should include a multi-level approach. The focus of individual studies should interfere with each other, but the irst step should be done separately. Podarcis muralis and Iberolacerta horvathi are sympatric in almost whole range of I. horvathi’s distribution (endemic to Southern Alps in NE Italy, S Austria and NW Slovenia and Dinaric Mountains in Slovenia and Croatia) and display overall similarity in morphometric, coloration and ecological characteristics. I. horvathi is more abundant at higher altitudes whereas P. muralis shows the opposite trend, suggesting competitive exclusion pattern. One way to understand biological processes of lacertid species on a mechanistic level is to preform experiments investigating preferred body temperatures (Tp), since the use of best basking sites could be source of competition in ectothermic reptiles. For two consecutive years we performed a comparative analysis of Tp with experiments in laboratory thermo gradients (20 -50°C; measurements at 11 hourly intervals) with specimens of both sympatric species to compare interspeciic variation. I. horvathi selected higher Tps than P. muralis but mainly in spring and in the afternoon, in summer and early morning being more similar. P. muralis had a broader range of Tp than I. horvathi, suggesting it to be more eurythermic. Secondly, we investigated if the presence of conspeciic or heterospeciic male inluences the males’ Tp of both species to ind out if inference interactions inluence Tp. Preliminary results show that the inluence of presence of con- or hetero-speciic males on Tp was only evident in I. horvathi, but not in P. muralis.

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The relationship between form, function and ecology is very important for us to understand the process of phenotypic evolution and ecological evolution in biological organisms. Trait evolution between species and populations is the result of multiple factors. The Bite force of a vertebrate plays an important role in its life, mainly including eating habits, mate competition, territorial possession, defense against invaders and so on. In this study, the northern grass lizard (Takydromus septentrionalis) was used as a subject to explore the influence of living environmental factors on lizard morphology and bite force. After measuring the morphological traits of five populations, it was made a comparative analysis, on the differences in morphology and bite force between populations by studying the morphology, bite force and sexual dimorphism between different populations. The results showed that with the morphological size and bite force of the lizard increase as the average annual temperature of the land population decreases, however, the island population did not show this phenomenon. A significant positive correlation between the head size and the bite force of the lizard was found,and the obvious sexual dimorphism of head size,mouth opening and bite force of the lizard was also detected.

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The persistence of colour polymorphism (CP) within a given population is generally associated with the coexistence of alternative reproductive strategies, each one involving specific trade-offs among behavioural, morphological, physiological, and other life history. Trade-offs involving immune system are of particular interest, since the ability of dealing with parasites and diseases has severe consequences on the fitness individuals may achieve, but also entails substantial costs for them. T-level fosters a strong motivation to defend territories against rivals (i.e. increasing movements, activity, and aggressive display) and increases mating. At the same time, high T-level can decrease immune functions favours parasite infections, stimulates risky behaviours, and thus diminishes survival, according Immunocompetence Handicap Hypothesi (ICHH), and there is no way to maximize stamina and aggressive behaviours at once. Common wall lizard (Podarcis muralis) showing CP in three main color (yellow, white and red) and a morph specific pattern for both immunocompetence and seasonal variation of T-levels, where the former show low stamina with high plasma T-levels and the following high stamina with low intra-sexual competitive ability. We hypothesised the presence of 2 strategies: one from yellow-morph and another from white/red-morph. Thus we tested the aggressive response to conspecifics of yellow and white-morph using a mirror inserted into the ownsetting box, throughout the breeding season (128 experiments). All lizard was tested after a period of acclimatization. Results demonstrated the yellow males was more aggressive in the early bird season and with a decrease towards the end, whereas white males show an opposite pattern.

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The Common Wall Lizard (Podarcis muralis) represents one of the few reptile species that have successfully colonized regions in north-western Europe far outside their Mediterranean native range. DNA barcoding revealed that 85 introduced populations stem from eight geographically distinct invasive evolutionary lineages. Although the high phenotypic variability in colour pattern of wall lizards at both the intra-speciic and intra-population level might lead to a delayed recognition of introductions and little awareness of the problem of introgression in conservation management, there is increasing evidence of introductions at the native range margin of the species in south-western Germany. In order to infer the level of potential hybridizations in contact zones of alien and native lineages, we analysed a combination of maternally (mtDNA; cytochrome b) and bi-parentally inherited molecular markers (13 microsatellite loci). A total of 316 wall lizards from ive mixed populations as well as one native and one pure introduced reference population were analysed. Based upon model-based clustering methods our results suggest a rapid genetic assimilation of native populations through strong introgression of introduced Italian lineages. We also found a positive relationship between genetic diversity and the number of source populations. This high genetic diversity might be caused by the introduction of founders from diferent native populations from the Apennine Peninsula, which is a hotspot of the species’ genetic diversity. High levels of intraspeciic admixture may have promoted the invasion success of mixed populations. Nevertheless, introduced pure-bred populations with a low number of founders also retained rather high levels of genetic diversity like native populations and no evidence for a genetic bottleneck was found. The extent of introgression within artiicial hybrid populations suggests that introductions of non-native lineages are threatening the genetic integrity of native populations at the northern range margin through a rapid creation of hybrid swarms.

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Wildfires are a natural disturbance in many ecosystems. However, their effect on biotic interactions has been poorly studied. Fire consumes the vegetation and the litter layer where many parasites spend part of their life cycles. We hypothesize that wildfires reduce habitat availability for parasites with consequent potential benefits for hosts. We tested this for the lizard Psammodromus algirus and its ectoparasites in a Mediterranean ecosystem. We predicted that lizards in recently burned areas would have lower parasite load (cleaning effect) than those in unburned areas and that this phenomenon implies that lizards spending their entire lives in postfire conditions experience a lower level of parasitism than those living in unburned areas. We compared the ectoparasite load of lizards between eight paired burned/unburned sites, including recent (less than 1 year postfire) and older fires (2–4 years). We found that lizards` ectoparasites prevalence was drastically reduced in recently burned areas. Likewise, lizards in older burned areas showed less evidence of past parasitic infections. Fire disrupted the host–parasite interaction, providing the opportunity for lizards to avoid the negative effects of ectoparasites. Our results suggest that wildfires probably fulfil a role in controlling vector-borne diseases and pathogens, and highlight ecological effects of wildfires that have been overlooked.

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In the researched area, we identified a total of 16 species for the herpetofauna. Among these, 11 belong to the amphibians (Triturus vulgaris, Triturus cristatus, Triturus dobrogicus, Bombina bombina, Pelobates fuscus, Bufo bufo, Bufo viridis, Hyla arborea, Rana ridibunda, Rana lessonae, Rana dalmatina) and 5 to the reptiles (Emys orbicularis, Lacerta agilis, Lacerta viridis, Podarcis taurica, Natrix natrix). Aside these 16 species, we also identified populations of Rana kl. esculenta, a hybrid form between Rana ridibunda and Rana lessonae.

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Experimental studies about any species could not be carried out without a solid foundation about its biology and natural history. However, a great amount of time, energy and perseverance are recquired in order to collect these data, especially in long-term studies at individual level. This kind of studies monitor individually recognisable animals, which allows to get repeated measures of the studied traits. Thus, access to enough numbers of recognisable individuals with known life histories provides the possibility of asking, and answering, a wide range of novel questions that are otherwise inaccesible, allowing to conduct statistical analyses and/or experiments that isolate the effect of particular traits, impossible to perform on a sample of unknown individuals. In this thesis, we aim to know in a precise way the life-history traits of a population of Lilford’s wall lizard, Podarcis lilfordi, as well as its dynamic at individual level. To do so, a capture-recapture study spanning three years from April to September was carried out on an experimental plot. During the study period, information about several aspects of the lizards’ natural history, such as their home ranges, their coloration and seasonal variability, the traits of sexual dimorphism and their pairing patterns, was gathered. Through the use of these data the influence of such individual traits on intraespecific interactions and thus, their effect on dominance, will be stablished. General results show that the studied population of Lilford’s wall lizard moves around small-sized home ranges, to which individuals are faithful. The value given to said home ranges decides the outcome of aggresive interactions among neighbours invariably favoring the residents of the home range. Additionally, reduced aggression between neighbours is observed. However, when residency factor is nonexistent, dorsal coloration predicts the outcome of male contests, much more colourful than females. Nevertheless, both sexes manifest seasonal change in their dorsal coloration, although for different reasons. Evidences for mate guarding, as well as remarkable fidelity among observed pairs, were also found during mating season. Lastly, dominance is subject to mate choice and, in females only, mate dominance appears as the only significative factor regarding females own dominance.

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Diversity of reptile fauna, as well as threat factors were investigated during April and May 2019 in the settlement Mareza. Field methodology included active searching and visual observation of species along defined transects. In total, 20 reptile species were recorded, what comprises about 55 % of reptile fauna known for Montenegro. According to obtained results, area of Mareza can be considered as important reptile diversity hotspot in Montenegro. First finding of Xerotyphlops vermicularis in this area contribute to knowledge of its distribution range. Three identified species (Emys orbicularis, Testudo hermanni and Elaphe quatuorli neata) are listed on Annex II of the Habitat Directive. None of identified species are vulnerable, endangered or critically endangered, upon the IUCN Red List. Almost all identified species are protected on national level. Main threat factors for reptile fauna in the area of Mareza are: urbanization, habitat fragmentation and destruction, fires, illegal landfills, direct killing by locals and road killing.

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The Iberian Algyroides (Algyroides marchi) is a lacertid lizard with one of the narrow est distribution ranges in continental Europe, restricted to a minute area in the Subbaetic mountains in SE Spain. Due to specifc habitat requirements, this species is considered threatened by climate change and habitat degradation. Here, an improved and time-cali brated multilocus phylogenetic analysis, combining two mitochondrial, three nuclear mark ers as well as a battery of 12 microsatellite loci, was performed. Moreover, ancestral changes in efective population size were determined under Approximate Bayesian Com putation (ABC) analysis. In parallel, past, present and future habitat suitability was inferred using Ecological Niche Models (ENMs). The diversifcation of A. marchi in the Iberian Peninsula began during the Upper-Pleistocene around 0.10 Mya. However, during the Last Interglacial the species had much larger suitable habitats along NE Iberia and/or the Can tabrian region. Indeed, ABC analysis indicates that not the Last Interglacial, but instead the Last Glacial Maximum led to a population bottleneck followed by a recovery/expan sion. The footprint of this complex evolutionary history is refected today in six mono phyletic lineages, with little genetic diferentiation and geographic coherency. This pat tern most likely arises from the climatic oscillations during the Pleistocene, leading to a complete range shift and secondary contact, with very divergent haplogroups in sympatry and exchanging genes. Finally, the ENMs predict a considerable future retraction and shift in the area suitable for the species, which should be taken into account for conservation policies.

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Understanding the climatic factors influencing a species behavior is important for a multitude of reasons including conservation planning. Climate ecology of Lacerta agilis has been studied thoroughly at the edges of its distribution range and at high elevations but hardly in the central parts. As preferences between populations living in extreme conditions can vary considerably from those of populations in more moderate conditions, in order to properly conserve central populations of Lacerta agilis, we cannot rely on studies conducted in extreme conditions. We therefore use a visual encounter study on a sand lizard population in a heathland near Cologne over two years and combine it with the corresponding data of a nearby weather station. Our aim is to determine climatic preferences within the population and identify which factors influence activity in sand lizards using among other methods CART models and analysis of variance. Furthermore, we aim to deliver a method which can easily be included in any visual encounter based fieldwork.

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In this study, we identified the diversity of the freshwater, marine and terrestrial herpetofauna of the State of Kuwait. It consists of a total of 45 extant species; 44 species of reptiles and a single species of amphibian according to recent updated taxonomic studies. All specimens of reptiles collected and held in American and European natural history museums are documented. Four species are added to the herpetofauna of Kuwait: Chalcides ocellatus, Hydrophis lapemo ides, Hydrophis viperina, and Trapelus agnetae.

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The practice of free-range goat grazing in islets is common throughout Mediterranean Sea with well-documented consequences on plant communities. In the case of lizards grazing has been reported to alter vegetation providing less cover from avian predators, increasing thus predation risk. In this study we focused on the impact of grazing on populations of the Skyros Wall lizard (Podarcis gaigeae), an endemic lacertid of Skyros Archipelago (Aegean Sea, Greece). Our aim was to detect and assess possible direct and/or indirect efects on several features of lizards’ overall biology. Five biotopes (three islets and two localities from Skyros Island) that difer in the duration and intension of grazing were included in the project. For a time-window of six years we realized monthly samplings during spring and summer (reproductive period of P. gaigeae) and recorded invertebrate population densities, lizard ectoparasites prevalence, presence and density of sea gulls and lizard population densities. As expected, grazing had a strong negative inluence on plant communities. The restriction of vegetation impoverished considerably invertebrate populations, decreasing thus food availability for lizards, which feed mainly on insects. Furthermore it resulted in a serious degradation of the biotope quality since lizards in islets use plants as shelters or thermoregulation sites. Ectoparasite loads (ticks and mites) were higher in places where goats were present in large numbers for long periods. Goat activity disturbs sea gulls that normally nest on remote islands. Islets where grazing was continuous hosted few or even none breeding pair. Since sea gulls support in terms of energy many islets of Skyros Archipelago through marine subsidies, the devastation of their breeding colonies afected negatively small insular ecosystems. Finally, population densities of lizards were higher in biotopes with no grazing (Diavates islet and the dunal ecosystem of Palamari at Skyros Island) and much lower in places with intense grazing.

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All the Turkish populations studied, both those previously assigned to D. dryada (Subaşı and Yoldere villages, near Hopa) and those attributed to D. clarkorum (the largest sample studied so far, 177 specimens in total), are indistinguishable from each other and therefore must all be ascribed to the natural variability of a monotypic D. clarkorum. The Georgian specimens from the Type Locality of D. dryada (Charnaly river gorge, Chevachauri district) are clearly different, so that taxon cannot be considered a simple synonym for D. clarkorum, but as a valid taxon, although its proper status (more probably as a subspecies of D. clarkorum), is yet to be clarified. It is a highly threatened population, so studies should be done in vivo or with as low intrusiveness as possible.

Darevskia dryada is clearly larger (SVL) than any D. clarkorum studied, with strongly longer heads and pilei in adult males (and hence more teeth in dentary bone), and higher dorsalia counts. There also seem to be (but need to be studied in a larger sample) more longitudinal rows of temporal scales between tympanic and parietal plates, a tendency to have more supralabial scales; comparatively smaller values for longitudinal rows of scales on the ventral surface of the thigh between the femoral pores and the outer row of enlarged scales, and higher collaria, and circumanalia scales. Other differences in femoralia and gularia are also reflected in Darevsky & Tuniyev’s (1997) tables and should also be investigated with more Georgian specimens.

Two supposed discriminant characters, the frontonasal index and the presence of developed masseteric, are not valid. The frontonasal index does not discriminate both taxa; D dryada specimens fall inside the variation of D. clarkorum for this character. Also the presence of a developed masseteric plate is supposed to be rare if at all in D. clarkorum but always present in D. dryada; however, it appears in nearly 75% of D. clarkorum studied and in all D. dyada, so is also no longer valid for taxa discrimination.

Although very similar, D. clarkorum and D. dryada are morphologically different, and genetic studies (as the unpublished results mentioned by Fu, 1999) do not make the provenance of the specimens clear, and hence the correct identification of the supposed specimens of D. dryada used.

There are no geographical clines in D. clarkorum. However, as stated by Schmidtler et al. (2002), there is an inverse relationship between altitude and dorsalia values in D. clarkorum. Both the general differentiation between populations and the scalation (dorsalia) appear statistically correlated with the altitude and also with latitude (being both factors not strictly the same). The correlation seems to be stronger with morphology in general (multiple scalation characters and head biometry) than only with dorsalia. In the case of the general differentiation among samples, it is also significantly correlated with temperatures during the activity period (April-September) and with precipitation during incubation (July-August). As these climatic parameters of temperature and precipitation are not directly correlated with the dorsalia variation, the relation with altitude (and perhaps latitude) must be linked to some other climatic parameter not studied here, perhaps solar radiation or evapotranspiration.

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The balance between speciation and extinction (i.e. diversification), together with dispersal, dictate biodiversity patterns, which vary enormously among regions and taxa. This implies that diversification depends both on ‘intrinsic’ organismal traits and ‘extrinsic’ factors associated to specific regions. Area such as the Mediterranean Basin which underwent intense paleogeographic changes are known to have favored isolation and promoted diversification. Non-exclusively, the acquisition of key phenotypic traits (e.g. morphological innovations or shifts in climatic tolerances to exploit new niches) could drive diversification. The contribution of intrinsic traits and extrinsic factors to diversification, however, remains elusive. Here we test the contribution of paleogeography and phenotypic evolution in the diversification of green lizards (Timon and Lacerta). We reconstructed a complete dated phylogeny including all known lineages within species. Further, we characterized each lineage using 1) ecologically relevant morphological traits from museum specimens and 2) climatic niche characteristics (thermal and hydric conditions across each lineage’s distribution). Diversification analyses revealed that green lizards diversified steadily, without major rate shifts, and suggested that (paleo)geography played a significant role in this process. Body and relative head size, as well as climatic niche characteristics, exhibited significant phylogenetic signal pointing to higher dissimilarity among close relatives than expected under random processes. In contrast, thermal niche characteristics were more similar among clos relatives than expected by chance. However, trait-dependent diversification analyses did not lend support to any influence of these variables on diversification rates. Our results suggest that the geographic history of the Mediterranean Basin governed the diversification of green lizards.

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The common wall lizard is warmth – loving species which is mainly spread in the northern Mediterranean area. Its northern area of circulation spreads over the north of France, Luxembourg, along the Maas in Belgium, the south of the Netherlands, scattered appearances in Germany in the Eifel area and the Rhine area as far as Bonn. North of the Alps, the common wall lizard is a typical species of wine-growing regions. In Luxembourg, wall lizards are common along river valleys, whereas the species is largely absent in central and northern parts of Luxembourg. Within its native range the species shows a clear phylogeographic structure. To reconstruct the invasion history and the genetic diversity of the populations, 311 lizards (two to thirty individuals per population) were captured by hand or by noose within 31 populations of P. muralis in Luxembourg (n = 162), Germany (n = 17), France (n = 93), Italy (n = 12), Croatia (n = 9) and Belgium (n = 18). We sequenced for all populations a part of the mtDNA (cytochrome b) and genotyped all individuals at 10 microsatellite loci. We tested our data for the occurrence ofnull alleles with Micro-Checker 2.2.3 and for linkage disequilibrium with Fstat 2.9.3. STRUCTURE v 2.3.1 was used to analyse the genetic structures among subpopulations. The admixture model was used. We chose the correlated allele frequency model. AFST based AMOVA with 9999 iterations was performed in GenAlEx 6.41 with the three STRUCTURE based genetic clusters as populations. In our case 15 clusters have been generated over all 31 populations, among 7 clusters in Luxembourg. By means of the statistical methods, a separation of the North Luxembourg and the South Luxembourg populations is shown. The immigration routes are clearly demonstrated for the northern populations by means of the mtDNA data.

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Invasive species are a major threat to island biodiversity, and their eradications have substantially contributed to the conservation of island endemics. However, the consequences of eradications on the trophic ecology of native taxa are largely unexplored. Here, we used the eradication of invasive black rats Rattus rattus and European rabbits Oryctolagus cuniculus from the Berlenga Island, in the western coast of Portugal, as a whole-ecosystem experiment to investigate the effects of the eradication of invasive mammals on the trophic niche and body dimensions of the island-restricted Berlenga wall lizard Podarcis carbonelli berlengensis over a 2-year period. Our results suggest an expansion of the isotopic niche and an intensification of the sexual dimorphism of the lizard following mammal eradication. Additionally, we found considerable variability in isotopic niche across the island and detected evidence of sex-specific and season-modulated nutritional requirements of this threatened reptile. Our findings support that the eradication of 2 of the planet’s most problematic invasive vertebrates led to changes in the lizard trophic niche and sexual dimorphism in just 2 years. This suggests that the ecological pressures—for example, prey availability and habitat structure—to which lizards are exposed have substantially changed post-eradication. Our study emphasizes the scientific value of island eradications as experiments to address a wide range of ecological questions and adds to the increasing body of evidence supporting substantial conservation gains associated with these restoration interventions.

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Few studies have analyzed spatially the home ranges of small lizards, namely in the Iberian Peninsula. We studied the home ranges of two Iberian lacertids (Podarcis bocagei and P. hispanica) in a sympatric situation. Fieldwork was performed in a small area (Moledo beach, 0.8 ha) in the North-West of Portugal, situated within an urban area, limited by buildings, stone walls and small ields of traditional agriculture. The study area is characterized by four stones walls, and a small beach area with rocks and vegetation. Both species are in strict sympatry and present high densities. We captured 76 lizards of both species, and the exact position was geo-referenced with a professional Trimble GPS (horizontal error lower than 50 cm). We collected morphological measures, as well as tissue and blood samples; we marked the lizards with colored inks and release them in the same place of capture. We followed marked and unmarked lizards during seven days, making random paths around the stone walls and the beach. By visual contact and without recapture them, we recorded lizards’ positions with the GPS and collected other information such as species, sex, age, social interactions, environmental temperature, humidity, and substrate temperature. We calculated the home ranges of marked individuals with minimum convex polygons (MCP), within a Geographical Information System. We analyzedthe relationships between males and females of diferent species and their movements. We recorded a total of 774 individuals of Podarcis bocagei (339 females and 435 males), of which 236 were marked, and 243 individuals of Podarcis hispanica (126 females and 117 males), of which 72 were marked. Preliminary results showed movements among distant walls and overlapping of female home ranges with the home ranges of several males.

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Colour morphs sometimes have different behavioural strategies which may be maintained by frequency or density dependence mechanisms. We investigated temporal changes in behavioural reaction to a novel environment among colour morphs (yellow, orange, white) of the European wall lizard (Podarcis muralis). Adult males were given two 15 min experimental trials, and their locomotion was highly consistent between the two trials. Boldness, freezing and escape behaviour were less repeatable. Colour morphs differed in their locomotion and freezing behaviour. Boldness was similar among the morphs, whereas escape behaviour was lowest in yellow morph. Consequently, yellow morph males tended to explore novel environments quickly and thus were more likely to move to potentially safe areas. Orange and white males showed more fear when exposed to a novel environment. Whether such alternative behavioural strategies can contribute to the maintenance of variable fitness optima among the morphs and ultimately to the maintenance of polymorphism remains open to further investigation.

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Analysis of different aspects of the modern herpetology with the common lizard, Lacerta (Zootoca) vivipara, as a model species, shoes that the species could be considered as an effective integrative model object of biological researches.

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Evolutionary biologists aim to understand how novel characters arise an why they spread through populations. Here I will review our ongoing research on the evolution of a striking suite of exaggerated traits – morphology, coloration and behaviour – in common wall lizards (Podarcis muralis). Genomic analyses reveal that the suite of traits, traditionally associated with the ‘nigriventris’ phenotype, originated recently close to modern Rome. The phenotype has since spread and eventually introgressed into a distantly related lineage in western Italy. I will explain why the traits are favoured, what limits their spread, and how this creates a mosaic of phenotypic and genetic variation of the species in Italy.

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The present paper represents a contribution to the knowledge regarding the current composition and distribution of the herpetological fauna from a poorly surveyed Romanian region (Vaslui County, Eastern Romania). We confirm the presence of most of the recently recorded amphibian and reptile species from the region (Lissotriton vulgaris, Triturus cristatus, Bombina bombina, Pelobates fuscus, Bufo viridis, Hyla arborea, Pelophylax ridibundus, P. kl. esculentus, Rana dalmatina, Emys orbicularis, Anguis fragilis, Lacerta agilis, Lacerta viridis and Natrix natrix), give the first recent records for two species (Coronella austriaca and Vipera berus) which have not been recorded in the county since the 1960’s and also give the first ever record for the slow-worm (Anguis fragilis) in Vaslui County.

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Color polymorphisms are widely studied to identify the mechanisms responsible for the origin and maintenance of phenotypic variability in nature. Two of the mechanisms of balancing selection currently thought to explain the long-term persistence of polymorphisms are the evolution of alternative phenotypic optima through correlational selection on suites of traits including color and heterosis. Both of these mechanisms can generate differences in offspring viability and fitness arising from different morph combinations. Here, we examined the effect of parental morph combination on fertilization success, embryonic viability, newborn quality, antipredator, and foraging behavior, as well as inter-annual survival by conducting controlled matings in a polymorphic lacertid Podarcis muralis, where color morphs are frequently assumed to reflect alternative phenotypic optima (e.g., alternative reproductive strategies). Juveniles were kept in outdoor tubs for a year in order to study inter-annual growth, survival, and morph inheritance. In agreement with a previous genome-wide association analysis, morph frequencies in the year-old juveniles matched the frequencies expected if orange and yellow expressions depended on recessive homozygosity at 2 separate loci. Our findings also agree with previous literature reporting higher reproductive output of heavy females and the higher overall viability of heavy newborn lizards, but we found no evidence for the existence of alternative breeding investment strategies in female morphs, or morph-combination effects on offspring viability and behavior. We conclude that inter-morph breeding remains entirely viable and genetic incompatibilities are of little significance for the maintenance of discrete color morphs in P. muralis from the Pyrenees.

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In the northern area of Braşov County, the herpetofauna appears to be characteristic for a hilly and low-mountain zone and includes the following species: Salamandra salamandra, Triturus cristatus, Lissotriton vulgaris, Bombina variegata, Pelobates fuscus, Bufo bufo, Pseudepidalea viridis, Hyla arborea, Pelophylax ridibundus, Pelophylax kl. esculentus, Rana dalmatina, Rana temporaria, Rana arvalis, Emys orbicularis, Lacerta agilis, Lacerta viridis, Podarcis muralis, Anguis fragilis colchicus, Coronella austriaca and Natrix natrix. The presence of other three species (Zootoca vivipara, Zamenis longissimus and Vipera berus) in this area is also listed in the scientific literature. The status of amphibians and reptiles in the vicinity of human localities is vulnerable and uncertain, being threatened by intensive agricultural and mining activity, overgrazing, deforestation, waste deposition and aggressive human behavior. The further existence of several small populations of R. arvalis, P. muralis and L. viridis is unstable. Undisturbed habitats still exist near the Olt River and in central part of the Northern Perşani Mountains. The next steps concerning active protection of herpetofauna would be delimitation and protection of habitats, excavation of new breeding sites for amphibian populations and starting herpetological education in this area.

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Lizards are among the least studied groups in ecotoxicology, and despite a recent increase in the number of studies, there is still a lack of knowledge regarding their response to environmental contamination. In Europe, lacertid lizards have been identiied as potential model species for reptile ecotoxicology. The main question of our project was to assess if highly abundant lacertid lizards belonging to the genus Podarcis, could be used as bioindicator of pesticide exposure and toxicity in agricultural areas. To achieve this end, we used a three- stage tiered approach. The irst tier took the form of a ield survey to document both exposure and population endpoints of lacertids occurring in areas of intensive pesticide and usage and areas of negligible pesticide usage. The second tier was a mesocosm study in which naïve lizards were exposed to pesticides in a controlled experiment. Finally, the third tier included a laboratorial approach to the efects of one of the most common insecticides used worldwide, chlorpyrifos. We assessed pesticide impact using a comprehensive set of endpoints applied at diferent levels of biological organization, including behavioral, physiological, biochemical and histological biomarkers. The ield work conirmed the di culty of diferentiation between the efect of contaminants and other (local) factors at the population level but our results suggest a diference in the metabolic activity between animals from reference and exposed locations. Animals from exposed ields seem to be in worst body conditions and in a deicitary energy balance when compared to animals from the reference locations. The results of the mesocosm study validated the correlative data obtained in the ield survey. While the laboratory approach showed that environmentally relevant dosages of chlorpyrifos can afect P. bocagei. According to our data, P. bocagei seems to be a suitable indicator of sub-lethal exposure to pesticides.

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Thyroid glands of 47 Lacertae agiles aged over 3 years were examin- ed. Three phases of activity were distinguished: the period of spring tran- sition, of fuli activity and of its gradual decrease. The period of greatest activity fell for either sex in June. The two remaining phases began earlier in małe łizards. There were also observed the differences in structure and activity of the gland, which were connected with the age of Lacertae agiles and their active part in the reproduction.

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Climate can exert an effect on the strength of sexual selection, but empirical evidence is limited. Here, we tested whether climate predicts the geographic distribution and introgressive spread of sexually selected male color ornamentation across 114 populations of the common wall lizard, Podarcis muralis. Coloration was highly structured across the landscape and did not reflect genetic differentiation. Instead, color ornamentation was consistently exaggerated in hot and dry environments, suggesting that climate-driven selection maintains geographic variation in spite of gene flow. Introgression of color ornamentation into a distantly related lineage appears to be ongoing and was particularly pronounced in warm climates with wet winters and dry summers. Combined, these results suggest that sexual ornamentation is consistently favored in climates that allow a prolonged reproductive season and high and reliable opportunities for lizard activity. This pattern corroborates theoretical predictions that such climatic conditions reduce the temporal clustering of receptive females and increase male-male competition, resulting in strong sexual selection. In summary, we provide compelling evidence for the importance of climate for the evolution of color ornamentation, and we demonstrate that geographic variation in the strength of sexual selection influences introgression of this phenotype.

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The checklist and a provisional atlas of the amphibian and reptile species occurring in the Lepini Mountains (Latium, central Italy) are reported. Eleven species of amphibians and seventeen species of reptiles have been found in the study area. These species represent 85% of the entire central Italian herpetofauna. One species (Testudo hermanm) seems to be recently extinct probably due to over-collecting and habitat perturbance, and at present occurs in semi natural conditions only (specimens introduced by man). The dominant species are Salamandrina terdigitata, Triturus carnifex, Triturus vulgaris, Bufo bufo, Rana italica, Rana sinklepton esculenta, Lacerta viridis, Podarcis muralis, Podarcis sicula, Chalcides chalcides, Hierophis viridillavus, and Natrix natrix. From the biogeographical point of view, the most interesting species are Salamandrina terdigitata, Bombina variegata, Rana italica, Podarcis sicula, Chalcides chalcides, Elaphe quatuorlineata, and Coronella girondica.

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The zone of syntopy between Lacerta agilis, Lacerta strigata and Parvilacerta parva were discovered in vicinity of Mets Parni village, Lori Province, Armenia. 93 individuals of L. agilis (83.7%) and18 of L. strigata (16.2%) and one lizard of P. parva were examined during 2009-2011. According to our observations, the season activity of L. agilis is shorter than syntopic L. strigata on month. L. strigata emerged from hibernation at mid-April and were active until the mid-October, while L. agilis left winter burrows two week after L. strigata at the beginning of May and disappeared into hibernation on two week earlier at the end of September. Females of L. strigata lay thier irst clutchof eggs at the end of May, whereas L. agilis lay the irst clutch at the beginning of summer. The hatchlings of both species active till end October when the thermal conditions still favourable. Similarly, the appearance of young from winter hibernation occurs earlier than adults. Our surveys also revealed that two syntopic species possess spacial diferentiation of the same slope, where in bottom of slope were met L. strigata, in the middle of slope were both species and on higher places near to top of slope were mainly L. agilis. Thus, the dates of season activity, stages of reproductive cycles as well as pattern of spacial diferentiation allow to syntopic species to share resources of habitats.

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Tonic immobility, or the ability to play dead, is widespread among vertebrates. It is a last line of defence against a threat, and usually follows physical restraint. Here, I report two lizards exhibiting tonic immobility in the presence of humans, but remarkably, without any handling or physical contact. These two lizards belonged to an invasive population of the Italian Wall Lizard (Podarcis siculus), and both events took place in different years and situations, suggesting this behaviour may be more common than previously thought. There are rare documented cases of animals exhibiting this behaviour without handling; however, to my knowledge, this is the first description of a lizard displaying tonic immobility to humans, in the absence of handling. This is also the first incident of tonic immobility in the Italian Wall Lizard. I discuss these anecdotal events in the light of this invasive population inhabiting a highly urbanized location.

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The distribution of the reptiles of the cities of Halle (Saxony-Anhalt) and Leipzig (Saxony) is described. A big fund of historical data of the distribution it exists. Recent data of 1961-2008 are shown and in formations on habitate use, phenology and status of threat are added. The biodiversity of the reptiles decreases from the periphery of the town to the city centre. In the historical old towns no reptiles occure. The periphery of both towns, mainly characterised by agriculture and industry hosts an extremely low number of reptile species. Occurrence of national importance can be found in the floodplains of the south and northwest of both towns. These locations are hot spots of reptile species diversity. Currently three autochthonous reptile species occur in the city of Halle and five autochthonous species in the city of Leipzig. The Sand lizard (Lacerta agilis) is the most frequent species. The Gras snake (Natrix natrix) and the Slow worm (Anguis fragilis) are rarer compared to it. The Viviparous lizard (Zootoca vivipara) occurs only in Leipzig. Since the end of the 1980s there was no record on the European Pond tortoise (Emys orbicularis), which is possibly extinct. The origin of the recently +observed Wall lizard (Podarcis muralis) in Halle is unknown.

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The sand lizard Lacerta agilis reaches the western edge of its range in the where it is restricted to habitats on sandy soils and consequently has a limited and patchy distribution. This hasleft the sand lizard particularly vulnerable to the efects of habitat loss and fragmentation and the species has sufered signiicant declines. Sand lizards were sampled from a number of sites within the species’ UK stronghold of Dorset and genotyped at 15 microsatellite loci. Individual populations were identiied using Bayesian assignment methods. Populations exhibited relatively high levels of genetic diferentiation over small geographical distances and diferentiation patterns could not be explained by isolation by distance. The efect of the landscape on genetic population structure was investigated at a ine scale in two scenarios: across a series of isolated/fragmented sites separated by natural and artiicial barriers to dispersal; and, within a large area of forestry plantation where small patches of suitable habitat are present among larger areas of less suitable habitat. Remotely sensed habitat data was used to create a resistance surface and least-cost path analysis was used to explain genetic population structure within both scenarios.

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Harsh and variable environments have been hypothesized to both drive and constrain the evolution towards higher cognitive abilities and behavioural flexibility. In this study, we compared the cognitive abilities of island and mainland Aegean wall lizards (Podarcis erhardii), which were expected to live in respectively a more variable and a more stable habitat. We used four proxies of behavioural flexibility: a neophobia assay, a problem-solving test and a spatial + reversal learning task. Surprisingly, the two populations did not differ in neophobia or problem-solving. Insular lizards, however, outperformed mainland conspecifics in an initial spatial learning task, but were less successful during the subsequent reversal learning. Our results thus seem to indicate that the effect of environmental variability on cognition is complex, as it may favour some, but not all aspects of behavioural flexibility.

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Aim: Climate change is expected to cause mountain species to shift their ranges to higher elevations. Due to the decreasing amounts of habitats with increasing eleva tion, such shifts are likely to increase their extinction risk. Heterogeneous mountain topography, however, may reduce this risk by providing microclimatic conditions that can buffer macroclimatic warming or provide nearby refugia. As aspect strongly influences the local microclimate, we here assess whether shifts from warm southexposed aspects to cool north-exposed aspects in response to climate change can compensate for an upward shift into cooler elevations. Location: Switzerland, Swiss Alps. Methods: We built ensemble distribution models using high-resolution climate data for two mountain-dwelling viviparous ectotherms, the Alpine salamander and the Common lizard, and projected them into various future scenarios to gain insights into distributional changes. We further compared elevation and aspect (northness) of current and predicted future locations to analyse preferences and future shifts. Results: Future ranges were consistently decreasing for the lizard, but for the salamander they were highly variable, depending on the climate scenario and threshold rule. Aspect preferences were elevation-dependent: warmer, south-exposed microclimates were clearly preferred at higher compared to lower elevations. In terms of presence and future locations, we observed both elevational upward shifts and northward shifts in aspect. Under future conditions, the shift to cooler north-exposed aspects was particularly pronounced at already warmer lower elevations. Main conclusions: For our study species, shifts in aspect and elevation are complementary strategies to mitigate climatic warming in the complex mountain topography. This complements the long-standing view of elevational upward shift being their only option to move into areas with suitable future climate. High-resolution climate data are critical in heterogeneous environments to identify microrefugia and thereby improving future impact assessments of climate change.

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In oviparous species, pesticides may affect embryo survival via maternal transfer or contaminant absorption from the soil, thus representing an important cause of population decline. Maternal transfer is a source of contamination during vitellogenesis and oviductal egg retention. Currently, there is still limited evidence of the potential risk of embryonic exposure routes in reptiles. We investigated whether different agricultural treatments affect embryo, egg, and hatchling development and survival in the Italian wall lizard. We kept gravid females from conventional and control fields in captivity until oviposition and, after eggs being incubated in a pesticide-free environment, offspring morphology and performance (running speed) were assessed. Our results showed that the size of the mother positively influences the number of the eggs and offspring, as well as hatching body condition. Bigger females from conventional treatments tended to lay more eggs. Moreover, at equal female body conditions, eggs and hatchlings from conventional treatments had worse quality (i.e., smaller size and lower body condition) than those from control areas. No effect of treatment was observed on hatchling locomotor performance. In conclusion, our study provided new insights of the direct and indirect effects of field management (i.e., pesticide exposure) on females` reproductive success through the alteration of female`s behaviour, which in turn may affect offspring development and health.

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The sand lizard Lacerta agilis reaches the western edge of its range in the where it is restricted to habitats on sandy soils and consequently has a limited and patchy distribution. This has left the sand lizard particularly vulnerable to the efects of habitat loss and fragmentation and the species has sufered signiicant declines. Sand lizards were sampled from a number of sites within the species’ UK stronghold of Dorset and genotyped at 15 microsatellite loci. Individual populations were identiied using Bayesian assignment methods. Populations exhibited relatively high levels of genetic diferentiation over small geographical distances and diferentiation patterns could not be explained by isolation by distance. The efect of the landscape on genetic population structure was investigated at a ine scale in two scenarios: across a series of isolated/fragmented sites separated by natural and artiicial barriers to dispersal; and, within a large area of forestry plantation where small patches of suitable habitat are present among larger areas of less suitable habitat. Remotely sensed habitat data was used to create a resistance surface and least-cost path analysis was used to explain genetic population structure within both scenarios.

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Climate change is negatively affecting many species. The increase in mean air temperature is often associated with shifts in distribution, changes in phenology, and local extinctions. Other factors that only partially correlate with air temperature, like water shortage, may also contribute to the negative consequences of climate change. Although the effect of temperature on lizards’ ecophysiology is highly studied, many lizards are also at risks of increased water loss and dehydration, which are predicted to increase under climate change. Here we aimed for the first time to explore if lacertid lizards exposed to dehydration thermoregulate less precisely than hydrated lizards and if dehydrated lizards are less active, change the daily pattern of thermoregulation and balance water balance against thermoregulation. We exposed four lizard species with differences in the thermal preference to thermal gradients with or without a source of water. We measured preferred body temperatures, daily pattern of thermoregulation, and the use of space. Dehydration negatively affected thermoregulation in all investigated species. Dehydrated lizards reduced their preferred body temperature and showed a species-specific pattern of hourly change in thermal preference. Furthermore, they more frequently used the colder parts of the gradients and spent more time hidden. Lizards experiencing dehydration may suffer a reduction in survival and fitness because of poor thermoregulation. Similarly, they may spend more time hidden, waiting for more favourable weather conditions. Such inactivity may carry ecological costs especially in those regions that undergo either short or prolonged periods of droughts.

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This thesis provides description of the ecological niche space of the Common Wall Lizard (Podarcis muralis) in the Vojvodina region of Serbia with a detailed presentation of its distribution in the area. Additionally, a quantification of the developmental stability of the wall lizard in Vojvodina on an urbanization gradient is given. Finally, the ecological and conservational status of the species in the Vojvodina region is described. The species’ ecological niche space was analysed using the ENFA and MaxEnt modelling approaches, with ecogeographical variables derived from bioclimatic, atmospheric water regime, orographic, and land cover habitat variables. The obtained models were compared with models for peripanonian and mountainous Serbia since we believe the current distribution of the wall lizard in Vojvodina depends on ecological signals specifically present in the Vojvodina region but are absent in the two other ecogeographical regions of Serbia. Niche models for lizards in Vojvodina were significantly different from models for the peripanonian and mountainous regions of Serbia. The differences in ecological niche space were interpreted and related to the bionomy of the species. Ecological niche models revealed a wide distribution of the wall lizard across urban habitats of the Vojvodina region and a clear association with habitats of this type. Specifically, we identified a pattern of the close association of species’ presence with edge habitats of urban and industrial sites, and a general avoidance of agricultural habitats. In the other two regions, this signal was less pronounced with different habitat and orographic variables becoming more important. Overall, bionomic signals related to habitat structure were more important than scenopoetic signals related to abiotic conditions in defining the ecological space of this species in Serbia. Since urban habitats are generally believed to be stressful environments with numerous challenges to species’ overall fitness, we analyzed developmental stability of lizards across a gradient of urbanization to provide insight into the possible coping mechanisms of this species. Developmental stability was described by analyzing fluctuating asymmetry in qualitative characters of the pholidosis, as well as fluctuating asymmetry, allometry, modularity and integration of the pileus and frequency of phenodeviants in the pileus region of the lizard. Developmental stability results showed that urban and suburban lizard populations do not develop under more stressful conditions than populations from natural habitats, while they do have a more canalized developmental response. The wide distribution and a close connection to urbanized habitats with successful adaptation to new environments lead to the conclusion that the Common Wall Lizard should be considered as an indigenous species for the Vojvodina region, contrary to proposed qualifications.

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So far, seven species of the genus Darevskia Arribas, 1997 have been documented from Iran: Darevskia chlorogaster (Boulenger, 1909), Darevskia deilippii (Camerano, 1877), Darevskia mostouii (Baloutch, 1976), Darevskia praticola (Eversmann, 1834), Darevskia steineri (Eiselt, 1995), Darevskia valentini (Boettger, 1892) and Darevskia raddei (Boettger, 1892). Based on extensive and long-lasting ield work in various regions of the Iranian Plateau, taxonomy and distribution of the lacertid lizards of the genus Darevskia Arribas, 1997 are discussed. Some new records and a new taxonomic entity within this genus are reported. The distribution maps of all the studied species are given and a key to the Iranian species of Darevskia is provided.

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In 26 Portuguese castles 5 amphibian and 11 reptile species were recorded. Most species immigrated into the castle area from the surrounded environment. In some regions the distribution of Tarentola mauritanica and Hemidactylus turcicus is restricted to castles and the adjacent village or town; it is highly probable that they were introduced there by man. The microhabitat castle is highly endangered by restaurations.

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Due to its geographic location, the Caucasus region connects species from three diferent continents in a heterogeneous landscape, creating an environment prune to the development of speciation events and multiple endemisms. Among them, the lacertid genus Darevskia is a group of rock lizards radiating and diversifying in the region. Among their highly polymorphic members a number of parthenogenetic forms are present result from the hybridisation between bisexual Darevskia species. However, the origin of these forms lacks an explicit spatiotemporal context. One of the most interesting bisexual species in the group is Darevskia raddei which is responsible for the motherhood of some unisexual forms, namely D. unisexualis, D. uzzeli and D. bendimahiensis and D. sapphirina). Fruthermore, this species is considered conspeciic to D. nairensis and D. (raddei) vanensis, two forms of unclear status which link to the parthenogenetic forms need to be clariied. This, this study aims to reach a global comprehension of the three putative bisexual taxa within of the D. raddei complex (D. raddei, D. nairensis and D. (raddei) vanensis), and their phylogenetic relationships with the parthenogenetic forms they theoretically parented. A phylogenetic analysis was conducted on samples of the D. raddei complex, ranging from Turkey, Armenia, Georgia and Iran. Maximum Likelihood and Bayesian methods were applied on a combination of mitochondrial and nuclearmarkers. Namely, three mtDNA (cytochrome b, ND4 and 12s) and two nDNA (MC1R and c-mos) markers were used. Our results conirm that Darevskia raddei (sensu lato) is the proposed maternal species for at least D. unisexualis, D. uzzeli, D. bendimahiensis, D. sapphirina and D. rostombekowi, as already supported by previous studies. However, it does not support a genetic diferentiation between the three forms described within the complex, which are to be considered conspeciic. Moreover, there is reinforced evidence that the three parthenogenetic forms considered arose more than once in the history of the genus, from diferent lineages of the bisexual parents.

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Maintaining body temperature is essential for the optimal performance of physiological functions. Ectotherms depend on external heat sources to thermoregulate. However, thermoregulation may be constrained by body condition and hydration state. Autotomy (i.e., the voluntary shed of a body part) evolved in various animal lineages and allowed surviving certain events (such as predator attacks), but it may affect body condition and volume/surface ratios, increase dehydration and constrain thermoregulation. In the framework of a general analysis of the evolution of autotomy, here we assessed the effects of tail loss on the thermal preferences and evaporative water loss rates (EWL) in the lizard Podarcis bocagei, integrating the thermal and hydric factors. We did not observe shifts in the thermal preferences of experimentally autotomized lizards when compared to the controls, which contradicted the hypothesis that they would raise preferred temperature to increase metabolic rates and accelerate regeneration. Evaporative water loss rates were also similar for tailed and tailless in dividuals, suggesting negligible increase of water loss through the injury and no specific ecophysiological re sponses after autotomy. Therefore, the changes observed in autotomized lizards in the field are to be considered primarily behavioural, rather than physiological, and thermoregulation could be secondarily affected by behavioural compensations for an increased predation risk after autotomy. Functional studies are necessary to understand how lizards’ interaction with the environment is altered after autotomy, and further studies including different dehydration levels would be useful to fully understand the effect of water shortage on lizards’ per formance after caudal autotomy.

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Zwischen 1976 und 2002 wurde die Artenzusammensetzung der Herpetofauna an 90 Ruinen von Wassermühlen in Portugal untersucht. Es wurden 12 Amphibien- und 19 Reptilienarten registriert, die 69 % der in Kontinental-Portugal vorkommenden Arten repräsentieren. Die Zusammensetzung der Herpetozönosen wird durch die geografische Lage, den Habitattypus des Umfeldes und der Phase des Zerfallsprozesses der einzelnen Mühlen geprägt. Durch die anthropogene Belastung der Flüsse ist vielerorts eine deutliche Reduzierung der Individuendichte und Artenzahl der Amphibien und hydrophiler Reptilien zu verzeichnen.

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The non-stop release and increase in the ecosystem of toxic and polluting substances such as endocrine disrupting chemicals pose a threat to the survival of wildlife. Nonylphenol and Octylphenol are well known xenobiotics, with estrogen-like properties, widely used to optimize the manufacturing of different products, and due to their hydrophobicity and low solubility, they are persistent and ubiquitous in many environmental matrices. The goal of the present study was to investigate the effects of these compounds on the testis of the lizard Podarcis siculus during the reproductive period, focusing our attention on the steroidogenesis process. The lizard P. siculus has been chosen as animal model as it is usually used as a sentinel species and because the morphology and physiology of testis between lizards and mammals do not change, allowing a fine correlation of observed effects to human health. Obtained results showed that both substances used in this study, are able to alter testis histology and localization of key steroidogenic enzymes such as 3_- hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase, 17_-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase and P450 aromatase, which represents the major target of these two alkylphenols. In conclusion, Nonylphenol and Octylphenol inhibit steroidogenesis, interfering with the reproductive capacity of the lizard Podarcis siculus.

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Atlantolacerta andreanskyi is a very enigmatic lacertid lizard that, according to the most recent molecular analyses, may belong to the tribe Eremiadini. It is a mountain specialist, restricted to areas above 2500 m of the High Atlas Mountains of Morocco with apparently no connection between the different populations. In this respect, the situation in A. andreanskyi is similar to an archipelago, with the different “islands” being represented by mountaintops. As a result of this scenario, a very high level of genetic differentiation is expected between the different populations, although it is not clear how the Pleistocenic glacial cycles might have affected this species. In fact, the relatively large and apparently disjunctive range of A. andreanskyi with populations occurring on isolated mountains suggests it may not be a single species. In order to test these hypothesis 137 specimens of A. andreanskyi were sampled from 5 different populations across the distribution range of the species (431 Km). A total of 2 gene fragments from mitochondrial DNA (12S, ND4) and 5 gene fragments from nuclear DNA (Pdc, Acm4, Cmos, Rag1, MC1R) were amplified. The results of the molecular analyses clearly show that all the populations analyzed present a very high level of genetic differentiation for the mitochondrial markers used and are also differentiated at the nuclear level. The taxonomic, biogeographic and evolutionary implications of these findings are discussed.

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Apathya is a lacertid genus occurring mainly in south-east Turkey and its adjacent regions (part of Iran and Iraq). So far two morphological species have been attributed to the genus, i.e. A. cappadocica (with five subspecies, A. c. cappadocica, A. c. muhtari, A. c. schmidtlerorum, A. c. urmiana and A. c. wolteri) and A. yassujica. The first of them occupies most of the genus’ distribution while A. yassujica is endemic of the Zagros Mountains. The topology and the genetic distances retrieved from this study, reveal that Apathya is a highly variable genus, which comes in agreement with the high morphological variation found in previous studies. Such levels of morphological differentiation and genetic divergence often exceed those between species of other Lacertini genera that are already treated as full species, justifying our view that the genus requires taxonomical revision. The phylogeographical scenario proposed reveals that dispersal and vicariant events in Anatolia and Southwest Asia throughout the Miocene, Pliocene, and Pleistocene resulted in the present distribution of the genus under study. Key geological event for the understanding of the phylogeography of the genus is the movement of the Arabian plate that led to the configuration of Middle East specifically the formation of the mountain ranges of Turkey and Iran.

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Agriculture intensification is among one of the major threats affecting terrestrial reptiles worldwide. There is however a lack of information available on the ecology of these vertebrates in agricultural landscapes. Basic information like the pattern of occurrence in cultivated fields is key to assess the probability of an animal being affected by threats driven by agricultural managing. Focussing on the Italian wall lizard (Podarcis siculus), we performed a field study to assess in detail its distribution and abundance in two cultivations, vineyards and cereal fields. Lizard distribution and abundance significantly varied among land uses, regardless of the arthropod fauna composition and diversity (analysed in the same fields), and the management activities. In the cereal fields, lizards were present exclusively along the field margins while in the vineyards they also occurred in the inner portions of the cultivated areas, even if they were more abundant next to the borders. The widespread presence of lizards in the vineyards suggest that P. siculus can likely adapt to such cultivated areas. This partly lowers the effect of habitat loss due to vineyard planting but exposes animals to the risks related to management activities, including mechanical practices and chemical application. In contrast, the presence of sowed lands, as extremely simplified habitats, results primarily in a definitive loss of habitat for lizards that are unable to settle within them, while the exposure to threats driven by management is less direct than in vineyards.

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New data on the distribution of amphibians and reptiles of conservation interest in southern Tuscany. The amphibian and reptile fauna native to southern Tuscany inclu des 31 species (13 amphibians and 18 reptiles), most of which are protected under the Habitats Directive (EEC Directive 43/1992, ratified by Italy with DPR 357/1997) and by the recent Tuscan Regional Law on biodiversity (LR 56/2000). Seventeen species are of particular significance and their conservation warrants or may require designation of Special Conservation Zones or Sites of Regional Importance. In this note, new data is provided on the distribution of eleven of these species (Salamandra salamandra, Salamandrina terdigitata, Triturus alpestris, Triturus carmfex, Bombina vanegata, Bufo viridis, Rana italica, Coronella austriaca, Coronella girondica, Elaphe quatuonlineata and Natrix tessellata) which considerably increases the number of 10 x 10 km squares of the UTM grid in which these species are present in southern Tuscany.

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Podarcis wall lizards are endemic to the Mediterranean Basin where they represent the predominant reptile group. Despite being extensively used as model organisms in evolutionary and ecological studies their phylogeny and historical biogeography are still incompletely resolved. Moreover, molecular clock calibrations used in wall lizard phylogeography are based on the assumption of vicariant speciation triggered by the abrupt Mediterranean Sea level rise at the end of the Messinian salinity crisis (MSC). However, the validity of this biogeographic calibration remains untested. In this study we inferred a robust time tree based on multilocus data and fossil calibrations using both gene concatenation and species-tree approaches and including models with gene-flow. We found five deeply divergent, geographically coherent, and well-supported clades comprising species from i) Iberian Peninsula and North Africa; ii) Western Mediterranean islands, iii) Sicilian and Maltese islands; and iv-v) Balkan region and Aegean islands. The mitochondrial tree shows some inconsistencies with the species tree that warrant future investigation. Diversification of main clades is estimated in a short time frame during the Middle Miocene and might have been associated with a period of global climate cooling with the establishment of a marked climatic zonation in Europe. Cladogenetic events within the main clades are scattered throughout the time tree, from the Late Miocene to the Early Pleistocene, suggesting that speciation events in wall lizards reflect a complex interplay between regional topography, climate and geological history rather than a shared major climatic or paleogeographic event. Our absolute time estimates, as well as a relative dating approach, demonstrate that the assumption of a causal link between sea-level rise at the end of the MSC and the diversification of many island endemics is not justified. This study reinforces the notion that multiple dispersal and vicariant events, at different time frames, are required to explain current allopatric distributions and to account for the historical assembly of Mediterranean biota, and cautions against the use of biogeographic calibrations based on the assumption of vicariance.

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The study of environmental factors affecting vertebrate reproduction has long interested both developmental and evolutionary biologists. Although photoperiod has been considered to be an important environmental parameter for vertebrates such as birds, temperature is probably a primary external factor responsible for reproductive cyclicity in reptiles. In spite of the progress made in the understanding of reptilian reproductive strategies and adaptations, much remains to be learned about the interplay between endocrine physiological factors, such as hormones, and environmental parameters. In this report, we have examined the effects of in vivo administered FSH on oocyte recruitment during the most significant periods of the reproductive cycle of the lizard, Podarcis sicula. The results show that when FSH is administered in proximity to the reproductive period, it stimulates oocyte growth and ovulation; when the hormone is administered at the beginning of the winter stasis it affects ovarian activity without inducing ovulation. Ovarian adenylate cyclase activity is moderately sensitive to in vitro FSH stimulation during the pre- and post-reproductive periods. The sensitivity to hormone stimulation increases significantly during the reproductive period and winter stasis. We have also tested the hypothesis that environmental temperature affects the responsiveness of ovarian adenylate cyclase to FSH stimulation. For such a purpose, we exposed animals to 28° C or 4° C in different periods of the ovarian cycle. The results show that, whenever the temperature applied mimics the thermal regime of the coming season, adenylate cyclase sensitivity to FSH shifts towards levels that anticipate the natural responsiveness.

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The spiny-tailed lizard, which has a series of taxonomic revisions, is one of the most common lizard species in Turkey. In this study, sequence data derived from three microsatellite loci (Du215, Du281, and Du323), two mito chondrial (16S rRNA and Cyt-b) genes and combined data were used to evaluate the taxonomic status of Darevskia rudis and Darevskia bithynica with new samples from all subspecies populations in Turkey. Our results indicated that the genetic variations of microsatellite loci were not specific to populations within species, and only minor differences separated D. rudis and D. bithynica populations. Furthermore, the markers we used for phylo genetic analyses (NJ, ML, MP, and BI) produced topologically similar trees based on 16S rRNA and Cyt-b while the combined data produced conflicting trees with the separate gene analyses. Finally, the basal relationships among the populations in Turkish populations D. rudis and D. bithynica were not resolved with this dataset, and we found a hard polytomy at the basis of the phylogeny.

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We are present a brief review of the herpetofauna of the northeastern part of the Black sea coast. A total twenty seven species was recorded. Of which two newt species (Lissotriton vulgaris, Triturus karelinii), nine species of tailless amphibians (Bombina bombina, Pelobates fuscus, P. syriacus, Bufo bufo, Epidalea viridis, Hyla arborea, Rana dalmatina, Pelophylax ridibundus, P. esculentus), ten species of lizards (Mediodactylus kotschyi, Angius fragilis, Pseudopus apodus, Ablepharus kitaibelii, Lacerta agilis, L. trilineata, L. viridis, Podarcis muralis, P. tauricus) and seven species of snakes (Natrix natrix, N. tessellata, Dolichophis caspius, Elaphe sauromates, Zamenis longissimus, Coronella austriaca, Vipera ammodytes). Their conservation status was stated and their presence in the protected areas in the study area was analyzed. A map of the herpetologically important areas was draw.

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After a brief introduction to the main geologica!, climatologica! and botanical features of the area- a territory of Latium region, Central Italy- the work synthetized data about its vertebrate fauna with exclusive regard to Amphibians, Reptiles an d Mammals. In this list 46 species and subspecies are considered ofwhich 8 are Amphibians, 11 Reptiles and 27 Mammals. Ecologica! analysis has focused the attenction on the absence or scarcity of many thermophilous species, a fact which finds explanation, according to the Authors, in the `continental` position ofthe district. Among the species, many are rare or localized and some considerations are carried out in order to their management and protection.

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We assessed the presence of Rickettsia spp., Coxiella burnetii and Anaplasma phagocytophilum in reptiles, their ectoparasites and in questing ticks collected in a nature preserve park in southern Italy, as well as in a peri-urban area in another region. We also investigated the exposure to these pathogens in forestry workers, farmers and livestock breeders living or working in the nature preserve park given the report of anecdotal cases of spotted fever rickettsioses. Rickettsia spp. were molecularly detected in Podarcis muralis and Podarcis siculus lizards (i.e., 3.1%), in Ixodes ricinus (up to 87.5%) and in Neotrombicula autumnalis (up to 8.3%) collected from them as well as in I. ricinus collected from the environment (up to 28.4%). Rickettsia monacensis was the most prevalent species followed by Rickettsia helvetica. An undescribed member of the family Anaplasmataceae was detected in 2.4% and 0.8% of the reptiles and ectoparasites, respectively. Sera from human subjects (n = 50) were serologically screened and antibodies to Rickettsia spp. (n = 4; 8%), C. burnetti (n = 8; 16%) and A. phagocytophilum (n = 11; 22%) were detected. Two ticks collected from two forestry workers were positive for spotted fever group (SFG) rickettsiae. Ixodes ricinus is involved in the transmission of SFG rickettsiae (R. monacensis and R. helvetica) in southern Europe and lizards could play a role in the sylvatic cycle of R. monacensis, as amplifying hosts. Meanwhile, N. autumnalis could be involved in the enzootic cycle of some SFG rickettsiae among these animals. People living or working in the southern Italian nature preserve park investigated are exposed to SFG rickettsiae, C. burnetii and A. phagocytophilum.

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Tissue regeneration is a fundamental evolutionary adaptation, which is well known in lizards that can regenerate their entire tail. However, numerous parameters of this process remain poorly understood. Lizard tail serves many functions. Thus, tail autotomy comes with many disadvantages and the need for quick regeneration is imperative. To provide the required energy and materials for caudal tissue building, lizards are expected to undergo a number of physiological and biochemical adjustments. Previous research showed that tail regeneration induces changes in the digestive process. Here, we investigated if and how tail regeneration affects the digestive performance in five wall lizard species deriving from mainland and island sites and questioned whether the association of tail regeneration and digestion is affected by species relationships or environmental features, including predation pressure. We expected that lizards from high predation environments would regenerate their tail faster and modify accordingly their digestive efficiency, prioritizing the digestion of proteins; the main building blocks for tissue repair. Second, we anticipated that the general food shortage on islands would inhibit the process. Our findings showed that all species shifted their digestive efficiency, as predicted. Elongation rate was higher in sites with stronger predation regime and this was also applied to the rate with which protein digestion raised. Gut passage time increases during regeneration so as to improve the nutrient absorbance, but among the islanders, the pace was more intense. The deviations between species should be attributed to the different ecological conditions prevailing on islands rather than to their phylogenetic relationships.

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In 2019, a survey was conducted on the omnivory of the Common wall lizard Podarcis muralis in Tolmezzo (Carnia). Consumption of the following foods/species was recorded: Podarcis muralis, apple, pear, banana, melon, wa termelon, pineapple, plum, tomato, Arum italicum, Fragaria vesca, chicken egg, Chaenomeles japonica. Use of the carcass of a conspecifi c and consumption of a dry leaf are also reported. A review of the available literature failed to fi nd reports of these foods. This use occurred with relative regularity and was performed in 57.14% of cases by males and in 25% by females.

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Im voranstehenden Aufsatz wird eine neue Form der gewöhnlichen Eidechse Lacerta agilis L . als var. Dzieduszyckii m. beschrieben. Dieselbe unterscheidet sich sehr scharf von anderen bekannten Formen dieser Art durch eine besonders charakteristische Zeichnung und Färbung der Rückenzone. Es ist nämlich das Rückenband in zwei Reihen tiefschwarzer, länglicher, hellgrün umsäumter Flecken zerlegt. Das Exemplar, ein Männchen, stammt aus der nächsten Umgebung von Lemberg (Hołosko). Auf der beigesetzten Tafel sind ausser der beschriebenen Varietät noch die ebenfalls aus der Umgebung der Stadt Lemberg bekannten Formen: v. annulata Wern, und lineata Dürigen (albo v. spinalis Wern.) dargestellt.

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Within a competitive exclusion experiment conducted in 1971, five pairs of Podarcis siculus lizards were transferred from islet Pod Kopište to a nearby islet of Pod Mrĉaru in the Adriatic Sea. In only 35 years the newly established population exhibited significant morphological and ecological changes. This study combines experimental common garden approach with population genomics tools to discriminate between plastic and genomic response in Pod Mrĉaru population. Crossing experiment in common garden pointed towards medium to high heritability of diverged phenotypic traits related to head shape, indicating they hold enough additive genetic variance to evolve under selection. Genotyping by sequencing elucidated genome-wide divergence between Pod Mrĉaru and Pod Kopište populations. 18 loci putatively under selection were found to be associated with divergent phenotypic traits in source and newly established population, and/or differences in ecological variables among multiple P. siculus populations, suggesting rapid genomic adaptation on the islet of Pod Mrĉaru.

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This study provides observation on 21 species of amphibians and reptiles obtained during various field trips in Afghanistan from 2007 to 2018. The core of this study is distributional data collected mostly by the second author of this paper that were systematically evaluated. Our records show a notable expansion of the current distribution range for several species and highlight the need for more extensive further sampling within the entire country. The first record of Cyrtopodion agamuroides (Nikolsky, 1900) complex for Afghanistan is presented here, increasing the number of herpetofauna in the country to 117 species.

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Background: Blood parasites of the genus Karyolysus Labbé, 1894 (Apicomplexa: Adeleida: Karyolysidae) represent the protozoan haemogregarines found in various genera of lizards, including Lacerta, Podarcis, Darevskia (Lacertidae) and Mabouia (Scincidae). The vectors of parasites are gamasid mites from the genus Ophionyssus. Methods: A total of 557 individuals of lacertid lizards were captured in four different localities in Europe (Hungary, Poland, Romania and Slovakia) and blood was collected. Samples were examined using both microscopic and molecular methods, and phylogenetic relationships of all isolates of Karyolysus sp. were assessed for the first time. Karyolysus sp. 18S rRNA isolates were evaluated using Bayesian and Maximum Likelihood analyses. Results: A total of 520 blood smears were examined microscopically and unicellular protozoan parasites were found in 116 samples (22.3% prevalence). The presence of two Karyolysus species, K. latus and K. lacazei was identified. In total, of 210 samples tested by polymerase chain reaction (PCR), the presence of parasites was observed in 64 individuals (prevalence 30.5%). Results of phylogenetic analyses revealed the existence of four haplotypes, all part of the same lineage, with other parasites identified as belonging to the genus Hepatozoon. Conclusions: Classification of these parasites using current taxonomy is complex - they were identified in both mites and ticks that typically are considered to host Karyolysus and Hepatozoon respectively. Furthermore although distortions to the intermediate host erythrocyte nuclei were observed, the defining characteristic of Karyolysus, the haplotypes were nearly identical to those reported from lizards in the Iberian Peninsula, where such distortions were not reported and which were thus identified as Hepatozoon. Based on the phylogenetic analyses, neither vertebrate host, nor geographical patterns of the studied blood parasites could be established.

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The Mediterranean Basin has experienced extensive change in geology and climate over the past six million years. Yet, the relative importance of key geological events for the distribution and genetic structure of the Mediterranean fauna remains poorly understood. Here, we use population genomic and phylogenomic analyses to establish the evolutionary history and genetic structure of common wall lizards (Podarcismuralis). This species is particularly informative because, in contrast to other Mediterranean lizards, itis widespread across the Iberian, Italian, and Balkan peninsulas, andin extra-Mediterranean regions. We found strong support for six major lineages within P. muralis, which were largely discordant with the phylogenetic relationship ofmitochondrial DNA. The most recent common ancestor of extant P. muraliswas likely distributed in the Italian Peninsula, and experienced an “Out-of-Italy” expansion followingthe Messinian salinity crisis (~5 Mya), resulting inthe differentiation into theextant lineages on the Iberian, Italian and Balkan peninsulas. Introgression analysis revealed that both inter-and intraspecific gene flow have been pervasive throughout the evolutionary history of P. muralis. For example, the Southern Italy lineagehas a hybrid origin, formed through admixture betweentheCentral Italylineage and anancientlineagethatwas the sister to allotherP. muralis. More recent genetic differentiation isassociated with the onset of the Quaternary glaciations, which influenced population dynamics and genetic diversity of contemporary lineages. These results demonstrate the pervasive role of Mediterranean geology and climate for the evolutionary history and population genetic structure of extant species.

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Colour polymorphism in common wall lizards, Podarcis muralis: causes and consequences. Il polimorfismo cromatico è definito come la coesistenza all`interno della stessa popolazione di due o più morfi di colore distinti e geneticamente determinati. La lucertola muraiola (Podarcis muralis) presenta un complesso polimorfismo nella colorazione ventrale, con tre morfi monocromatici (bianco, rosso, giallo) e tre morfi con colorazione intermedia (bianco-rosso, giallo-rosso, bianco giallo). Dal 2004 è in corso uno studio a lungo termine sui meccanismi ecologici, fisiologici, genetici e comportamentali che mantengono il polimorfismo in questa specie. I risultati finora raggiunti permettono di ipotizzare che i morfi di colore della lucertola muraiola siano associati a differenti strategie comportamentali che coesistono all`interno della stessa specie.

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The biogeography of host-parasite dynamics is an area that has received little attention in studies of island ecology. While a few studies have shed insight on patterns of parasitism in insular host populations, more empirical evidence is needed to ascertain how isolation impacts parasites. Biogeography generally theorizes that the physical size of islands and the duration of each island’s isolation can be driving geographic factors controlling species interactions and populations dynamics. To test this, we assessed the effect of island structure and population isolation on the endemic insular lizard Podarcis erhardii and its native hemogregarine parasite (Apicomplexa: Adeleorina) in the Cyclades (Aegean Sea). We analyzed the relationships of prevalence and parasitemia of hemogregarine infection with several factors concerning the island (size, time of isolation, spatial isolation, population density) and host (body size) levels using regression and structural equation models, respectively. Regressions indicate that islands with greater host density and islands which have been isolated for shorter timespans tend to have higher hemogregarine prevalences; structural equation models suggest a similar pattern for parasitemia. We hypothesize this may be driven by insular density compensation. Hosts on islands that are more temporally and spatially isolated also tend to have higher prevalence and parasitemia of hemogregarines. Our results indicate that island area, island isolation, and host population density are likely to be significant drivers of changes in host-parasite interactions in fragmented populations.

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The exposure to environmental toxicants such cadmium (Cd) is an important research area in wildlife protection. In this study, the effect of Cd oral administration on the ovarian structure and function and on reproductive performance of the Italian wall lizard Podarcis sicula was studied. In vivo, adult female lizards were randomly assigned to three groups. Cd was given with food in single dose and in multiple doses 3 days/week for 4 weeks at dose of 1.0 μg/g body weight. Following euthanasia, the ovaries were removed and analyzed for morpho-functional changes. Results demonstrated that Cd increases prefollicular germ cells number; the evaluation of the number of follicles detects significantly higher number of atretic growing follicles, whereas primary follicles remain unchanged with respect to controls. After Cd treatments, follicles are deformed by the presence of large protrusions and a general dysregulation in the follicle organization is observed. The zona pellucida is also affected. Cd causes alteration in sugar metabolism and in metallothionein gene expression. Finally, Cd administration significantly reduces clutch size and dramatically increases embryo mortality. In conclusion, data here described show that Cd induces morpho-functional alterations in lizard follicles and indicates that these are responsible for a significant impairment of oogenesis. The effects of the dose are time independent, persisting essentially unchanged regardless of single or multiple administration, so it can be concluded that even occasional, sublethal Cd contamination may significantly impair reproductive performance in these animals.

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The cleidoic eggs of oviparous reptiles are protected from the external environment by membranes and a parchment shell permeable to water and dissolved molecules. As a consequence, not only physical but also chemical insults can reach the developing embryos, interfering with gene expression. This review provides information on the impact of the exposure to cadmium contamination or thermal stress on gene expression during the development of Italian wall lizards of the genus Podarcis. The results obtained by transcriptomic analysis, although not exhaustive, allowed to identify some stress-reactive genes and, consequently, the molecular pathways in which these genes are involved. Cadmium-responsive genes encode proteins involved in cellular protection, metabolism and proliferation, membrane trafficking, protein interactions, neuronal transmission and plasticity, immune response, and transcription regulatory factors. Cold stress changes the expression of genes involved in transcriptional/translational regulation and chromatin remodeling and inhibits the transcription of a histone methyltransferase with the probable consequence of modifying the epigenetic control of DNA. These findings provide transcriptome-level evidence of how terrestrial vertebrate embryos cope with stress, giving a key to use in population survival and environmental change studies. A better understanding of the genes contributing to stress tolerance in vertebrates would facilitate methodologies and applications aimed at improving resistance to unfavourable environments.

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Niet veel mensen weten van het voorkomen van smaragdhagedissen in Scheveningen. Op een geïsoleerd duin midden in een recreatieve hotspot leeft al zeker enkele decennia een kleine populatie. Naast de succesvolle vestiging van de exotische ondersoorten van de inheemse muurhagedis (Podarcis muralis) is dit de eerste nieuwe hagedissensoort die zich in Nederland heeft weten te vestigen. Vanwege de voorgenomen aanleg van een parkeergarage, waarvoor het gehele duin moet worden ontgraven, is het einde voor deze populatie echter nabij. Op de valreep, in 2019 en 2020, is er toch nog beperkt onderzoek uitgevoerd.

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The extensive use of pesticides in agricultural environments produces drastic effects on wildlife, hence the need for less invasive indicators of environmental stress to monitoring the impact of agriculture treatments on bio logical systems. Fluctuating asymmetry (FA), as measure of developmental instability, has recently been pro posed as reliable biomarker of populations stress due to environmental disturbance. We investigate femoral pores (FP) and dorsal head shape (HS) traits in populations of the Italian wall lizard inhabiting agricultural environ ments to examine whether different pesticide exposures (conventional, organic and control) can cause distinctive degree of FA. High-resolution photographs of FP and HS were taken in the field with a digital camera. The number of FP were counted twice on both sides and HS was analysed using geometric morphometrics with 25 landmarks and 12 semilandmarks. Individuals under conventional management showed higher levels of FA compared to control ones, and females exhibited higher FA levels than males for the FP. However, no significant difference was found for the HS trait. Our study provided evidence that FA may have a real potential as biomarker of population stress in wall lizards, highlighting the importance in the choice of the experimental design and the traits adopted for estimating DI.

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The first overview of the amphibians and reptiles of Dugi Otok Island, Northern Dalmatia, is presented, based on the published data and new records collected during the last twenty years. A total of 15 species are present on the island, of which only one was not recorded on our surveys. In comparison to other islands of Northern Dalmatia, Dugi Otok is the second most diverse island in terms of herpetofauna, just after Pag Island. The main threats to the amphibians and reptiles on the island are the disappearance and degradation of aquatic habitats, the abandonment and succession of traditional agricultural fields and olive groves and the increasing presence of several invasive species.

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The Neuwied basin is part of a basin situated between the Upper and the Lower Middle Rhine Valley. There has been a previous report on the wall izards of the Engerser Field, an enclosed nature protection area situated near the Rhine. It has the indigeneous sand lizard Lacerta a. agilis as well as the indigeneous, but immigrated wall iizard Podarcis muralis brogniardii (Eastern France genetic lineage) and the introduced foreign genetic line Podarcis muralis maculiventris (West, South Alps lineage), all of which are ecologically separated and compete only where their preferred habitats meet. Last winter, the Rhine had a high flood, as it happens irregularly, and this has reduced mainly the Italian population and eliminated the southern zone of hybridization. Furthermore, a population of wall lizards the Urmitz railroad bridghe over the Rhine has a slightly different colouration than the typical indigeneous lizards. This population seems to have been influenced by the Western France genetic lineage of P.m. brongniardii. A look at the railroad system and ist vicinities in the Neuwied basin revealed a morphology and ethology of the wall lizards indicating two introductions. The French lineage came in 2012 to the north of Vallendar (along with new vinestocks from Burgundy) and at an unknown date to the Rasselstein industrial areain the East of Neuwied; from this latter area, hybrids with the indigeneous Eastern French lineage were exported with machinery to various spots in the Neuwied basin, amongst them the princely lands at Sayn. More prominently, the North Italian wall lizard P.m. maculiventris, Southern Alps lineage has invaded the central Neuwied railway station in recent times, obviously as a stowaway in freight traffic. Hybridizing with the indigeneous lineage, the Italian llzards have spread eastwards along the railway track and into its southern neighbourhood up to the track triangle for the Urmitz bridge offshoot; this has happened mainly in the last five years at an estimated rate of 3/4 km p.a. The hills as well as the southernmost and northern areas of Neuwied as well as on the opposite, left bank of the Rhine continue to have the indigeneous Podarcis muralis brogniardii (Eastern France genetic lineage).

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This study provides distribution data for 12 species of reptiles in the Southern Bug eco-corridor located within the steppe zone, Mykolaiv Oblast (province), Ukraine. We compiled 935 records from published literature (324), from public databases (68), and from 12 field surveys we made in 2016–2020 (543). All records were mapped on to a grid of 10×10 km, representing the 294 cells of the studied area. We present new distributional data for Podarcis tauricus. For all the other species, our records add new localities that fall within areas where these reptiles were previously reported. Species richness and Shannon’s H’ index show that herpetofauna diversity was higher in the areas along the Southern Bug River. The maximum number of records within a single cell was 118 (for 10 species) in this oblast. Also the high number of identified reptile chorotypes (nine) within the Mykolaiv Oblast revealed that southern Ukraine is an important zoogeographical territory in Europe. These data provide the basis for future biogeographical and ecological studies and conservation priorities.

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Kroatien ist eines der herpetologisch artenreichsten Länder Europas und daher ein beliebtes Reiseziel mitteleuropäischer Herpetologen. Aufgrund des in den letzten Jahrzehnten stetig weiter ausgebauten Autobahnnetzes ist das Land gut und schnell zu bereisen, lediglich die Grenzwartezeiten an den Urlaubswochenenden sind noch einigermaßen mühsam, da Kroatien noch nicht im Schengen-Raum aufgenommen wurde. Viele im Rahmen der ÖGH oder Herpetofauna.at durchgeführten Exkursionen führten uns in den letzten Jahren nach Kroatien.

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This study was conducted to see whether herpetofaunal assemblage differed amongst hiking trails, undisturbed forest and urban areas within the Margalla Hills National Park, Islamabad Capital Territory, Pakistan. Circular plot area-constrained searches (45 plots in each habitat, each plot with an area of 25 m2) were used from March 2018 to July 2019. We recorded seven amphibian species, nine lizard species and six snake species. The species richness of amphibians and lizards was the same in the studied strata, while the detection and encounter rate of snakes was lower in the undisturbed forest and urban areas. The encounter rate of amphibians differed significantly between urban areas and hiking trails/undisturbed forest. The encounter rate and population density of lizards differed significantly between undisturbed forest and urban areas. The most frequently encountered amphibian species along the hiking trail and urban areas was Duttaphrynus stomaticus, with Hoplobatrachus tigerinus in undisturbed forest. The most common and frequently encountered lizard species along the hiking trail and urban areas was Hemidactylus brookii, while the Ophisops jerdonii was the most frequently seen in undisturbed forest. The most common and frequently encountered snake species along the hiking trail and undisturbed forest was the Indotyphlops braminus, while Ptyas mucosa was the most common in urban areas. The subsequent bio-assessment, based on herpetofauna, of the Park revealed good to excellent biotic integrity The Park faces threats including livestock grazing, alien invasive vegetation and human disturbance due to settlements, restaurants and tourism-related activities. While several of these threats have been mitigated since the establishment of the Islamabad Wildlife Management Board, the Park still requires improved management, especially regarding regulating tourism.

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The European green lizards of the Lacerta viridis complex consist of two closely related species, L. viridis and L. bilineata that split less than 7 million years ago in the presence of gene flow. Recently, a third lineage, referred to as the “Adriatic” was described within the L. viridis complex distributed from Slovenia to Greece. However, whether gene flow between the Adriatic lineage and L. viridis or L. bilineata has occurred and the evolutionary processes involved in their diversification are currently unknown. We hypothesized that divergence occurred in the presence of gene flow between multiple lineages and involved tissue-specific gene evolution. In this study we sequenced the whole genome of an individual of the Adriatic lineage and tested for the presence of gene flow amongst L. viridis, L. bilineata and Adriatic. Additionally, we sequenced transcriptomes from multiple tissues to understand tissue-specific effects. The species tree supports that the Adriatic lineage is a sister taxon to L. bilineata. We detected gene flow between the Adriatic lineage and L. viridis suggesting that the evolutionary history of the L. viridis complex is likely shaped by gene flow. Interestingly, we observed topological differences between the autosomal and Z-chromosome phylogenies with a few fast evolving genes on the Z-chromosome. Genes highly expressed in the ovaries and strongly co-expressed in the brain experienced accelerated evolution presumably contributing to establishing reproductive isolation in the Lacerta viridis complex.

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The first reports of sightings of Lacerta bilineata or Lacerta viridis at the Spitzberg near Tübingen go back to the 19th century. It is only in the last few years that sightings and interest in the bright green lizards have increased. However, the population has hardly been studied, so it is unclear whether it is a population of Lacerta bilineata, Lacerta viridis or even both. The exact distribution area and the population size are also unknown. What is certain, however, is that the occurrence on the Spitzberg is due to one or more exposures and thus represents an allochthonous island population. In the context of this work, the population size could be roughly estimated and the habitat preferences of the species on the northern edge of their range could be clarified. Furthermore, with the help of citizens, the distribution area was limited to the southern slopes of the Spitzberg and the nature reserve Spitzberg-Ödenburg. The investigation of the reptile fauna revealed a potential endangerment of the indigenous sand lizard by the green lizard. By recording the habitat preferences, it was possible to discuss potential dispersal areas, especially near Wurmlingen, Wendelsheim and on the southwest slopes of the Schönbuch. Based on the results, recommendations for measures relating to the population management of the green lizards on the Spitzberg were developed.


Amendment and comments by GUNTRAM DEICHSEL (June 2021):
The results of haplotype determinations were available only after filing in this thesis. All 12 swabs analyzed identify the species as Lacerta bilineata. All sighted juveniles displayed green coloration elements. This matches my own observations, confirming L. bilineata as the species on Spitzberg montain. Hence no objective hints to the other species taken into consideration, namely L. viridis, were found. However, an anecdotal report relates the release of one specimen of this species on Spitzberg mountain.
The comparison of different extrapolation methods with differing results makes the problems of population estimates apparent. For this reason, ULRICH SCHULTE recommends in a written note to myself to confine reports to observation frequencies.
The tick species Ixodes rhizinus is mentioned in chapter 1.1.7 as an expoarasite. The correct spelling is I. ricinus. Strict protection of L. viridis and L. bilineata according to appendix IV oft he FFH guidelines , mentioned in chapter 4.5.1, applies to national occurrences of these species in Germany only.