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The Madeira wall lizard, Teira dugesii selvagensis, is a partially herbivorous species that also predates Cory shearwater chicks, having an impact of 5% on the reproductive success of this seabird at the island of Selvagem Grande. This study aims to characterize and compare the population structure of Madeira wall lizards, as well as its role in the trophic web of various areas of Selvagem Grande. These areas were designated according to the type of relief, size of seabird colonies and vegetation cover, in two different Cory shearwater nesting seasons (egg incubation and offspring feeding period). The abundance of lizards in different areas and in both seasons was estimated using capture-mark-recapture. Lizard droppings were also collected, to identify contents. Samples of species belonging to the Selvagem Grande trophic chain were collected for isotopic analysis. Isotopic results were analyzed using SIAR and SIBER packages. Both the highest abundance of lizards and the highest vegetation cover were found in areas with small seabirds colonies. In spite of that, the proportion of lizard immatures was higher on the South/Southwest facing cliffs, where the largest seabird colonies are located. Herbivory increases with lizard size, and there was a high percentage of vegetable contents (about 65%) in the droppings. The isotopic basis of the trophic chain varied significantly among areas and is probably influenced by island topography and seabird inputs. Comparing signatures between geckos and lizards of the island, allowed the characterization of niches occupied by each species, being the differences justified by their diets. In areas with larger seabird colonies, seabirds or nutrient inputs brought by them were extremely important for the diet of T.d. selvagensis. The lizards with smaller differences in their isotopic niche between seasons were found in the areas with most seabirds, while the highest isotopic niche differences occured where resources were fewer. Isotopic results validate the dropping analysis, indicating consumption of seabirds during the bird offspring feeding period. Results obtained in this study suggest that the pressure of lizards on seabirds colonies is variable along the island. In contrast to what was expected, in areas with more vegetation there was a reduced impact on seabirds, despite higher abundances of lizards. Lizard monitorization should be continued to assess population trends as vegetation recovers after the eradication of rabbit and domestic mouse.

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Icosahedral nucleo-cytoplasmic large DNA viruses (NCLDV)-like viruses, which form inclusions in the erythrocyte cytoplasm of reptiles, were previously presented as candidates for a new genus of the Iridoviridae family. The present work describes the distribution of infected lizard hosts and ultrastructural characteristics of the viral inclusions of NCLDV-like viruses from Portugal and adjacent locations in Spain. Giemsa-stained blood smears of 235 Lacerta schreiberi from Portugal and Spain, 571 Lacerta monticola from the mountain Serra da Estrela (Portugal), 794 Podarcis hispanica from several localities in Portugal and Spain, and 25 Lacerta dugesii from Madeira Island, were studied. Infection in L. schreiberi was only found in mountain populations, up to 30% in Serra da Estrela and 9–11% elsewhere. It was absent in lizards from lowlands. Prevalence of infection among L. monticola in Serra da Estrela was 10%; infected lizards were found during March to July and October but not in August and September. Infection in P. hispanica was below 3.3%. Only one infected specimen of L. dugesii was identified by light microscopy. Ultrastructural examination of infected samples revealed that the inclusions are virus assembly sites of icosahedral cytoplasmic iridovirus-like virions. Virions from different host species have different ultrastructural features and probably represent different related viruses.

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The last catalogue of the Reptile collection of the Museu Bocage dates back to 1972. The collections were lost in a fire 25 years ago, so it was necessary to analyse the effort of various donors, who offered the Museum a new collection. The evaluation of the sampling effort is important to gather information (on quantity and origin) and the various samples of the species of lacertid lizards present in the Museum and enables an operational and practical visual imaged of that information. The obtained results prove that the study of the sampling effort using ordinary kriging method is robust and accurate on identifying gaps (under or no sampled areas) and a helpful tool to fulfil them. Although beginning to the representative of the Portuguese fauna, the lacertid collection of the Museu Bocage needs major improvements given that it still does not illustrate the actual distribution of lacertid lizards in Portugal. In order to stand for modern standards, when complementing the existing collection we must take into account not only the information provided by the analysis but also conservationist concerns (not killing animals) and the establishment of co-partnerships with congener institutions as well. Nowadays Museums have the duty, more than ever, to keep their collections well housed, cared for and accessible to the scientific community.

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Algyroides fitzingeri, Algyroides marchi, Algyroides moreoticus, Algyroides nigropunctatus, Lacerta agilis, Lacerta lepida, Lacerta princeps, Lacerta schreiberi, Lacerta strigata, Lacerta trilineata, Lacerta viridis, Lacerta andreanszkyi, Lacerta armeniaca, Lacerta bedriagae, Lacerta brandtii, Lacerta cappadocica, Lacerta caucasica, Lacerta chlorogaster, Lacerta cyanura, Lacerta danfordi, Lacerta derjugini, Lacerta dugesii, Lacerta fraasii, Lacerta graeca, Lacerta horvathi, Lacerta jayakari, Lacerta laevis, Lacerta monticola, Lacerta mosorensis, Lacerta oxycephala, Lacerta parva, Lacerta perspicillata, Lacerta praticola, Lacerta rudis, Lacerta saxicola, Lacerta vivipara, Gallotia atlantica, Gallotia galloti, Gallotia simonyi, Podarcis erhardii, Podarcis filfolensis, Podarcis hispanica, Podarcis lilfordi, Podarcis melisellensis, Podarcis milensis, Podarcis muralis, Podarcis peloponnesiaca, Podarcis pityusensis, Podarcis sicula, Podarcis taurica, Podarcis tiliguerta, Podarcis wagleriana, Psammodromus algirus, Psammodromus blanci, Psammodromus hispanicus, Psammodromus microdactylus.

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The ability to shed (autotomize) all or part of the tail, usually in response to predator attack, and often to subsequently regenerate it is widespread in lizards and amphisbaenians and also occurs in a few snakes and in the tuatara. Most species possess a sophisticated intravertebral autotomy mechanism which seems to be primitive in the Squamata. This appears to have been independently lost in members of many groups, but some agamids and snakes have regained the ability to shed their tails by a simpler intervertebral means and a -number of agamids have also redeveloped tail regeneration as well. Breakable tails are used to evade capture in two main ways: by enabling reptiles to break away from predators that have grasped them by the tail and by providing a distraction which deflects the attention of the attacker away from the vulnerable head and body. It is argued that loss of caudal autotomy has occurred when the costs of tail shedding outweigh its benefits. Likely costs include the expense of regrowing the tail and the loss of a variety of possible tail functions that may cause partial incapacitation, at least until the tail regenerates. Benefits of autotomy are liable to be low if predation is rare, if the animal is able to protect itself effectively in other ways, if it is too slow to evade further pursuit after the tail is shed, or if the tail is small or unpalatable and consequently not likely to distract a predator. Benefit variation may well be greater than cost variation and therefore more important in initiating the loss of autotomy mechanisms. Many taxa that do not shed the tail appear to conform to the above interpretation, but in some cases, such as the Platynota, Agamidae and Chamaeleonidae, lack of intravertebral autotomy may reflect the history of these groups rather than being a direct result of present ecological pressures. The distribution of intervertebral autotomy in the Agamidae suggests that it may have evolved only in rather special circumstances where tail fragility is advantageous even in the absence of the ability to regenerate. Restriction ot autotomy planes to the tail-base, so that the whole organ is lost, a condition found in a number of relatively slow-moving geckoes, is interpreted as a means of ensuring that enough of the tail is shed to distract a predator from further pursuit. The stimulus necessary to induce autotomy can vary rapidly in individual lizards and at least some of these changes probably maximize the effectiveness of the tail-shedding mechanism. Differences in the readiness with which all or part of the tail is shed exist between species and are likely to reflect the balance of costs and benefits in particular cases. Variations in incidence of broken tails between species and populations may be due to such differences in fragility but many other factors may play a part, including the age structure of samples, incidence of unsuccessful attacks by predators and ability to evade predators after autotomy. There is a clear tendency for climbing lizards, especially those living on rock surfaces, to have higher incidences of broken tails than ground-dwelling species, perhaps because the tail is usually less important in locomotion in the first group. Many lizards possess conspicuously coloured tails and tail movements that seem likely to help distract attention from the head and body. Conspicuous tail colouring is more frequent and often better developed in young animals, which tend to be more vulnerable than adults, and in active species from open habitats where crypsis may not always be very effective. Conspicuous tails usually have contrasting light and dark areas in nocturnal forms but are often a single bright colour in diurnal ones, probably reflecting the visual capacities of their respective predators. The predominance of blue tails in day-active species may be because this colour is striking close to but not very arresting at a distance, so it may not attract predators from far away while still drawing their attention at close quarters.

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The basic anatomy of the lacertid hemipenis (intromittent organ) and methods for its investigation are described. In many members of the Lacertidae, the hemipenis has a structure quite unlike that of other squamate reptiles: the distal lobes of the retracted organ are complexly folded and there is a well-defined supporting structure of dense connective tissue, the armature. This incorporates blood sinuses and has an intramuscular portion embedded in the m. retractor penis magnus and two club-shaped bodies, the clavulae, that support the lobes in the erect organ. Unarmatured hemipenes occur in some lacertids and, like those of other squamates, possess sac-like lobes in the retracted state, but they are singular in having the lobes invested by the m. retractor penis magnus. It is argued that many of these apparently primitive hemipenes are in fact secondary derivatives of the armatured type. There is considerable inter-specific variation in hemipenial structure which is described systematically. In some cases this involves differences in size, asymmetry and simplification, which may arise as physical isolating mechanisms and is useful in distinguishing otherwise very similar species, particularly in the genus Mesalina (p. 1253). Other shared derived hemipenial features provide useful information about relationships between species and higher taxa and a summary of the hypotheses that they support is given (p. 1254).

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Relationships of lacertid lizards were assessed on the basis of 84 primary and 112 binary characters drawn mainly from morphology, including features of the skeleton, external anatomy, various internal soft part systems and two aspects of behaviour. Among features not previously used, or not fully investigated before, are structure of the septomaxilla and nasal passages, arranged of the xiphisternal cartilages, mite pockets, kidney position, ulnar nerve arragement, thoracic fascia, aspects of the hemipenis and its associated muscles, female genitalia and jaw muscles. On the basis of parsimony analysis and compatibilty treatment of this character set, the Lacertidae fall into two main portions: A paraphyletic Palaearctic and Oriental group of primitive forms, from which is derived a holophyletic assemblage of Ethiopian and advanced Saharan and Eurasian taxa. The former group ist not fully resolvable, but Psammodromus and Gallotia appear to be sister groups and are probably related to Lacerta parva and L. fraasi and then L. brandtii, Podarcis appears to be related successively to L. andreanszkyi, the sister species L. dugesii and L. perspicillata, and perhaps L. danfordi and L. laevis. This assemblage may be related to archaeolacertas and Algyroides. The separation of Lacerta lepida, L. pater and L. princeps from the agilis group, based on chemical evidence, is weakly contradicted by morphology. Takydromus may be most closely related to L. vivipara, and L. jayakari and L. cyanura constitute the most likely sister group of the Ethiopian and advanced Saharo-Eurasian assemblage. Taxe in the Ethiopian and advanced SaharoEuroasian assemblage form a long essentially pectinate tree with relatively change between the side branches, except for a strong disjunction separating the more primitive from the more advanced taxa. Most of the former fall on two main branches, with ´Lacerta` australis and ´L.` rupicola possibly basal to them. 1. the Equatorial forest group containing Gastropholis, Bedriagaia, ´Lacerta` echinata, Adolfus, ´Lacerta` jacksoni and Holaspis. The first three of these constitute a holophyletic group and the same is probably true of the remainder. 2. Tropidosaura, Poromera and Nucras, the latter being the sister group of the more advanced forms. These include successively the Ethiopian Philochortus, Latastia, Ichnotropis and Heliobolus, Pseuderemias, Meroles and Aporosaura, and Pedioplanis, and then the Saharo-Eurasian Eremias, Acanthodactylus, Mesalina and Ophisops-Cabrita. It seems probable that the ancestors of modern Lacertidae arose in western Eurasia, where the family is known since the Palaeocene and is still represented there largely by quite primitive forms (89 species and seven nominal genera). The family later invaded Africa, perhaps first in the early or middle Miocene. Relatively primitive lacertids spread widely in largely mesic situations in the Ethiopian region, radiating to some extent (six present genera and 16 species) and producing Nucras and the related series of advaned groups (eight genera and 54 species) whoich show increasing adaptation to xeric environments. These genera tend to have heir most primitive species in the northeast and north of the Ethiopian region. The most advaned gave rise to the Saharo-Eurasian clade, now made up to Eremias, Acanthodactylus, Mesalina and Ophisops-Cabrita. This invaded the arid areas of North Africa and Eurasia, where it is presently represented by 70 species. Many morphological changes in increasingly advanced lacertids may be functionally related to the problems of survival in arid, hot, open environments. Considerable ecological parallelism exists in lacertids, with members of separate stocks occupying similar niches in different geographical areas. Morphological adaptations associated with these niches contribute significantly to the high levels of character homoplasy found in the family. There is also some correlation between the degree of niche differentiation in various groups and the quality of the phylogenies that can be produced from their physical characters. A number of morphological parallels exist between advaned lacertids and New World macroteiids. In the skull at least, advaned lacertids show a complex mixture of paedomorphosis and acceleration. Nomenclatorial changes are as follows: Cabrita is synonymised with Ophisops, necessitating a new name, Ophisops nictans, for Cabrita jerdonii. Aporosaura is synonymised with Meroles, Platyplacopus with Takydromus, and Bedriagaia with Gastropholis. ´Lacerta` (or Centromastyx) echinata is also transferred to the latter genus and Lacerta jacksoni to Adolfus. ´Lacerta` australis and ´L.` rupicola are put in a new genus, Australolacerta. It is recommended that Lacerta dugesii and L. perspicillata should not be placed in the otherwise very uniform genus Podarcis. Although clearly paraphyletic, Lacerta s. lat. Should be retained at least for the present and, if necessary putative relationships within it indicated by informal groups or subgenera.

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Estimates of phylogeny may allow historical events to be reconstructed even without a fossil record. The reliability of such interpretations depends not only on the robustness of the phylogeny but also on its topology. Changes in individual features can be traced and general histories of groups developed and compared with each other. Results are ofter surprising, for Instance the sophisticated tail shedding mechanism of lizards turns out to be a primitive feature that has been lost many times. Similarly, ecological analogues may have developed their common characaters in quite different orders. Phylogenies also provide a way of recognizing constraints and the effects of history on present ecological and behavioural patterns. When using anatomical characters the quality of the apparent phylogenies produced may be related to ecological history: expansion of a group along an ecological continuum into increasingly demanding niches ina small geographical area tends to produce a robust phylogeny (for instance in Meroles), while this is often not so for widely distributed groups that occupy a more modest range of niches (such as Pedioplanis and Podarcis). Non-morphological data may not show this tendency, but can have their own problems. Lacertids can be referred to clade with many successive branches in Africa and the Saharo-Eurasian arid zones and a less resolved probably paraphyletic complex of more primitive forms in the Mediterranean and wider Palaearctic areas. The African-Eurasian clade shows a general trend towards ground-dwelling and increasingly arid habitats but is ecologically variied. These animals are important to the study of Mediterranean forms because they provide eco-morphological parallels to them (for instance to Algyroides, Psammodromus and the archaeolacertas) and help form a basis for testing hypotheses about function. Although it is possible to recognise a number of distinct clades among the Mediterranean and Eurasian forms, relationships within and between these are often much less well substantiated. If results are available in time, current work on mitochondrial DNA sequencing will be discussed.

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Differences in surface structure (ober- hautchen) of body scales of lacertid lizards involve cell size, shape and surface profile, presence or absence of fine pitting, form of cell margins, and the occurrence of longitudinal ridges and pustular projections. Phylogenetic information indicates that the primitive pattern involved narrow strap-shaped cells, with low posteriorly overlapping edges and relatively smooth surfaces. Deviations from this condition produce a more sculptured surface and have developed many times, although subsequent overt reversals are uncommon. Like variations in scale shape, different patterns of dorsal body microornamentation appear to confer different and conflicting performance advantages. The primitive pattern may reduce friction during locomotion and also enhances dirt shedding, especially in ground-dwelling forms from moist habitats. However, this smooth microornamentation generates shine that may compromise cryptic coloration, especially when scales are large. Many derived features show correlation with such large scales and appear to suppress shine. They occur most frequently in forms from dry habitats or forms that climb in vegetation away from the ground, situations where dirt adhesion is less of a problem. Microornamentation differences involving other parts of the body and other squamate groups tend to corroborate this functional interpretation. Microornamentation features can develop on lineages in different orders and appear to act additively in reducing shine. In some cases different combinations may be optimal solutions in particular environments, but lineage effects, such as limited reversibility and different developmental proclivities, may also be important in their genesis. The fine pits often found on cell surfaces are unconnected with shine reduction, as they are smaller than the wavelengths of most visible light.

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Archaeolacerta s. l., in the currently utilized sense results to be a polyphyletic taxon, composed of three monophyletic and phylogenetically well differentiated taxa: a)-Archaeolacerta (s. str.) Mertens, 1921, which includes three species: A. bedriagae, A. oxycephala, and A. mosorensis, distributed by the northern part of the Central Mediterranean (Corsica, Sardinia, and west Balcanic Peninsula). His most related genera seem to be Teira (his adelphotaxon in our study), Apathya, and Omanosaura. b)-Iberolacerta gen. nov., with two subgenera: Iberolacerta s. str. and Pyrenesaura subgen. nov. includes six species: I. monticola, I. cyreni, I. bonnali, I. aranica, I. aurelioi, and I. horvathi. They are distributed by the mountains of Western Europe (Iberian Peninsula, Pyrenees, Central and Eastern Alps and the north of the Dinaric Chains). His adelphotaxon are the Caucasian and Near East species of Darevskia gen. nov. c)-The third taxa is Darevskia gen. nov., which includes the species of the `L.` saxicola complex besides `L.` derjugini, `L.` praticola, and `L.` chlorogaster. They are distributed by Eastern Europe, Caucasus, and Near East. Other clear relationships among some taxa of the Eurasian Radiation [= `Eurasische linie` from (Mayer and Benyr, 1994)] have been found: Algyroides seems to be the sister group of the species considered of uncertain phylogenetic relationships belonging to the `L.` danfordi-laevis group and of Podarcis. `L.` brandtii seems to be a very primitive species within the Eurasian Radiation. Omanosaura and Apathya appear as sister taxa. `L.` graeca occupies a very basal position in the sister group of Podarcis and relatives (see above). `L.` andreanskyi is the sister species of the Darevskia nov. and Iberolacerta nov. clade. The assimilation of `L.` andreanskyi to Teira is very problematic. Also the `L.` parva group seems to be related to Timon. Some groups of species like `L.` brandtii, `L.` parva-fraasii and `L.` danfordi-laevis probably merit generic rank, but it is necessary a more deep study before to take a decision.

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In this paper we deal on the ultraviolet color (invisible to us): where we can find it, the capability of animals to see it and the advantages that this color perception offers to them. As the simplest way to detect it is the photography, we describe and review how to photograph the UV, as a result of 15 years of amateur experience, searching and testing nearly in complete blindness due to the lack of practical information about “how to do it”. We describe the different kinds of photography (chemical and digital); the cameras and objectives suitable (both astronomically expensive ones and cheap options); what are the best characteristics that the objectives should have for this purpose; the films suitable for their use in chemical photography; the different filters (current or discontinued) manufactured along the years; and the subtle combinations among the different materials to obtain pure UV photographs. This kind of scientific photography is mainly used in forensics, forgery detection, art dermatology and less in Natural History, despite the fact that a great part of animals see this color and use it in important questions of their biology as the social behavior, mate choice or the food search.

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The microornamentation of the scales (oberhautchen) has been studied by means of enamel casts (in negative), or with detached skin pieces (positive cast in the upper face or negative in their lower face of the scales) and its observation by transparency with optical microscopy at 40x, 400x and 1000x. In this study we have found a remarkable uniformity in all genera of Lacertini studied (already known, although significantly expanding the number of species previously studied). In light of the results obtained, it seems that the use of the microornamentation of the scales in taxonomy is limited. There is a remarkable degree of variation and probably of homoplasy, as it happens in so many characters of Lacertini. Nor is it clearly linked to certain conditions of the environment, although it may have a certain importance in mechanisms such as evapotranspiration and perhaps in the crypsis through its influence on the reflectance of the scales. These scales can present protuberances (like small tubercles) on their surface (derived character) in Algyroides (the four species), and in the case of Algyroides marchi also seems to present small pits on its scale surface. In most lacertids the cells of the “oberhautchen” are usually narrow (or short anteroposteriorly, if preferred), between 1 and 4 μm, having the appearance of ribbons or transverse straps. Smaller sizes (derivated) appear more or less marked in Algyroides spp, Darevskia praticola complex, Parvilacerta spp and in Dinarolacerta mosorensis (although not in D. montenegrina) and is difficult to interpret. Except in Dinarolacerta, in the other species it coincides that they are ground or ground-rock interface species, and the coarser stripes could have to do with reflectance (imitating the vegetation or the medium between which they move, according to the hypothesis of Allam et al.). In the case of Dinarolacerta, very saxicolous, it is probably the sister group of Algyroides and the common morphology could have a phylogenetic origin linked to its relationship with Algyroides. There is also no relationship with moisture since some come from dry places and others are from very wet areas. The posterior flange of the cells may be slightly mounted in the next cell (primitive character) but appears quite raised (derived character) in Algyroides nigropunctatus (much less in A. moreoticus and A. marchi, and apparently little or nothing in A. fitzingeri). The rear flange of the cells can be smooth, corrugated or notched. In our samples, irregular (and even dentate) posterior ridges appear in numerous Darevskia such as D. derjugini, D. parvula, D. raddei complex [D. raddei raddei, D. r. vanensis and D. nairensis], in part of the group of D. rudis [D. rudis sspp. and D. bithynica sspp.], several Iberolacerta (I. bonnali, I. horvathi and I. monticola astur), as well as in Teira dugesii. The character appears, although less marked in Algyroides (more in A. moreoticus, but less marked or barely visible in the others), in Hellenolacerta graeca, and other Iberolacerta (I. aurelioi, I. martinezricai, and scarcely marked in I. cyreni). Very little marked in Darevskia mixta, somewhat more in D. dryada and none in D. clarkorum, and also appears in the group of D. saxicola (D. saxicola, D. brauneri brauneri, D. b. darevskii, D. lindholdmi, D. szczerbaki), Dalmatolacerta oxycephala, Dinarolacerta mosorensis (only in the Biokovo sample, and not in Durmitor or D. montenegrina), Apathya cappadocica, in some places of the scales of Parvilacerta fraasii (but not in P. parva) and very little in D. (p) hungarica; also in the remaining group of D. rudis (D. valentini valentini, D. v. lantzicyreni, D. rudis bolkardaghica, D. portschinskii), and some parthenogenetic species (D. armeniaca, D. dahli, D. rostombekowi) but not in D. unisexualis, D. uzzelli, D. sapphirina, D. bendimahiensis or in the triploid hybrid between D. unisexualis and D. nairensis. In these parthenogenetic species it seems a general rule that the character of the crenulation or irregularity of the posterior flange of the cells resembles that of the paternal rather than the maternal species. The exception is the triploid hybrid [arisen from the hybridization of D. unisexualis (parthenogenetic female, without the character) and a male of D. nairensis (with fairly developed character)] that lacks character, and in this case is more similar to the maternal species of which has two genetic sets compared to only one of the paternal one.

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Animals communicate via a variety of sensory channels and signals. Studies on acoustic and visual communication systems suggest that differences in the physical environment contribute to the variety of signalling behaviour, with species investing in those signals that are transmitted best under the local conditions. Whether or not environmental tuning also occurs in chemical communication systems has received much less attention. In the present study, we examined the effect of several aspects of the physical environment on the chemical communication system of lacertid lizards (family Lacertidae). The numbers of femoral pores are used as a proxy reflecting how much a particular species invests in and relies upon chemical signalling. Femoral pores are specialized epidermal structures that function as a secretion channel for the waxy substance produced by glands. In some lacertid species, the secretion carries infochemicals that play an important role in social communication. The number of femoral pores varies considerably among species. We have compiled data on femoral pore numbers for 162 species and tested for the effects of climate and substrate use. After correcting for body size and taking the phylogenetic relationships among the species into account, we found no effect of climate conditions or latitude on species pore numbers. Substrate use did affect pore numbers: shrub-climbing species tended to have fewer femoral pores than species inhabiting other substrates.

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Podarcis dugesii is a polymorphic species found on the ecologically-heterogeneous Atlantic island of Madeira. Patterns of geographic variation in size-free body dimensions (body shape), scalation, and size were portrayed on maps with isophene contours. There was no dominant pattern of among-site variation as seen in several other island lizards, although some linear combinations of morphological variables showed evidence of clines towards the east coast. Multivariate statistical techniques were developed to evaluate whether morphological variation contained an ecology-related spatial pattern, after removal of the effects of statistical non-independence of studied populations. Specifically, a partial correlation matrix comparison method provided evidence to support a proposed elevation model of among-site divergence in scalation and body size, with both an alternative rainfall model and spatial non-independence held constant. Similar divergence in scalation has been observed in other lizard species on other island archipelagos as well on some continental areas. The rainfall model was rejected for both body shape and scalation. The degree of within-population polymorphism in body shape and scalation showed no clear geographic trends in general, although the elevation and rainfall models could not be rejected for female scalation.

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The longevity of several lacertid lizard species in captivity is reported. The conditions of keeping, which have been successful throughout many years, are briefly presented.

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The lizard species Gallotia atlantica, G. caesaris, G. galloti eisentrauti, and G. stehlini from the Canary Islands and Teira dugesii from Madeira were kept and bred in captivity. Since ecological data concerning the breeding biology of these species are rare, the results of several years of captive breeding are presented. Data were collected from six pairs of G. atlantica during five years. The females laid 1-3 clutches of eggs each year between April and the beginning of September. The first egg clutches of a year contained 2.7 (1-5) eggs and the second egg clutches consisted of 2.5 (1-4) eggs. Third egg clutches were rare and consisted of only 1.7 (1-2) eggs. The baby lizards hatched after 73 (64-87) days. Three pairs of G. caesaris were observed during three years. Between the middle of May and the end of July the females of this species laid one clutch per year containing 3.8 (3-5) eggs. Only one female produced a second clutch during one season. The young hatched after 67 (64- 69) days. Eight pairs of G. g. eisentrauti were observed during seven years. Between the beginning of May and the end of August these females oviposited annually 1-2 clutches, which contained 4.7 (2-9) eggs in the first clutch of a year and 3.4 (2-6) eggs in the second annual clutch. The young hatched after 73 (62-89) days. One pair of G. stehlini was observed over a period of six years. Between June and August this female produced annually one clutch containing 9.8 (5-14) eggs. The young hatched after 80 (75-86) days. Two pairs of Teira dugesii were observed during one year and two pairs during four years. Between the end of April and the middle of August the females produced 1-2 clutches per year with 2.6 (2-3) eggs in the first and 2.1 (1-3) eggs in the second clutch of a year. The incubation period of the eggs was 72 (59-93) days. Furthermore, sizes of hatchlings of all species are presented. Colour patterns of hatchlings of G. g. eisentrauti, G. caesaris, and G. atlantica are described. Observations concerning the raising of the young in captivity are reported.

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This study reports the observations of 54 species of amphibians and reptiles obtained during four field surveys to Morocco, including the southern and southeastern regions. Our records reveal a notable expansion of the current distribution range for several species especially in the eastern part of the country, highlighting the need for more intensive sampling within this region.

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Algeria is a case study of biodiversity ignorance. To date, there are neither complete inventories for any taxa nor atlas across the country! Yet, Algeria is of great importance for global biodiversity. The coastal area of Algeria is part of the global biodiversity hostpot which is the Mediterranean perimeter and has several regional red spots of biodiversity. Moreover, the Saharan part encompasses a diversity of endemic organisms adapted to the strong conditions of drought. The Algerian authorities are deploying an ambitious project for conservation aiming to reach 50% of the country`s surface as protected areas! However, the location of these protected areas and their management don’t obey to a scientific evidence based, but are rather based on experts opinion. The main aim of this thesis is the study of the biodiversity ignorance distribution in Algeria by focusing on the `Linnean, Wallacean, and Darwinian Shortfalls` and to contribute to reduce them. The first chapter aims at reducing the Linnean Shortfall by proposing 1) a first checklist of reptiles and amphibians of Algeria which is the result of an accurate review of scientific publications on these taxa in North Africa. 2) a first pre-assessment of the conservation status of reptiles and amphibians of Algeria for the production of the first national red list. The second part of this manuscript deals with the ignorance of the geographical distribution of species. The purpose of this part is to map the ignorance which is defined as the difference between the expected specific richness diversity and the observed specific richness. The predicted species richness was modelled with two approaches: 1 ecological niche modelling with the maximum entropy method (MaxEnt) to predict the suitable habitats for each species and then add the different binary layers of species presence to calculate the specific richness. 2) Minimum convex polygon method was used to create range maps of each species and were auditioned to obtain predicted species richness. Both approaches have shown the same trend at a national scale: the concentration of the richest areas along the Saharan Atlas and the High Plateaus which are the transition zone between the Sahara and the Mediterranean part of Algeria. The opposition of the Saharan with a low species richness and the northern part with a higher species richness. Finally, the Saharan massifs of the Hoggar and Tassili form a very distinct zone with a much greater wealth compared to the rest of the Sahara. In terms of gaps, in the northern part, Kabylie, El Kala National Park and the Oran region are fairly well surveyed. In the Sahara, only a few points are clearly well prospected as Biskra, Bechar and some areas of the Hoggar and Tassili. The third part deals with the distribution of genetic llineages in the Maghreb. The aim of this section is to locate the phylogeographic breaks between the divergent eastern and western populations of the Maghreb and to try to understand the mechanisms that led to this pattern of genetic diversity. To answer these questions, I carried out a comparative phylogeography on 11 species of reptiles and amphibians with continuous and wide distribution in the Maghreb. Two suture zones have been identified: one zone on the border of Algeria and Morocco, the other in Kabylia west of the Soummam valley. The divergences between the eastern clades and the western clades occurred between the pre-Messinian periods up to the pliopleistocene boundary and were maintained in climatic refugia in the East and West of the Maghreb.

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We report on our observations on Podarcis lilfordi (GÜNTHER, 1874) and other Menorcan herpetofauna during our 12 day trip to Menorca (Balearics, Spain). 13 populations of Podarcis lilfordi were surveyed, 101 specimens were measured and photographed in detail, from which 84 specimens were “buccal-swabbed” for DNA samples. The subspecific status of Hemidactylus turcicus spinalis from Addaia Gran is discussed and rejected.

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New informations concerning systematical questions within the family Lacertidae, which were published during the last year, are presented.

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Das kleine »Galapagos vor der europäischen Haustür« ist Gegenstand dieses in sich geschlossenen Bandes. Er gibt erstmalig einen Überblick über die Herpetofauna dieser Inselgruppen.

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In this study 175 specimens of Podarcis dugesii from the islands Madeira, Deserta Grande, Bugio, Porto Santo, Selvagem Grande and Selvagem Pequena were examined. Morphological data from lizards of these six islands were subjected to a Variance- and Discriminant-analysis and compared to results from an Enzyme-Electrophoresis. Podarcis dugesii mauli is placed as a synonym of the nominate subspecies. In contrast, two new subspecies are described: Podarcis dugesii jogeri ssp.n. for the population from Porto Santo and Podarcis dugesii selvagensis ssp.n. from the Selvagens islands.

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In the herpetological collection of ZFMK 528 scientific species group names are represented by type materi- al. Of these, 304 names are documented by primary type specimens (onomatophores) while for 224 further names sec- ondary type specimens (typoids) are available, ranging chronologically from 1801 to 2010. The list is a shortened pred- ecessor of a comprehensive type catalogue in progress. It lists name bearing types with their catalogue numbers includ- ing information on further type series members also in other institutions, while secondary types are listed only by pres- ence, both in ZFMK and other collections including holotype repositories. Geographic origin and currently valid names are also provided.

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Ambientali, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milano, Italy 3Laboratoire d’Ecologie Alpine, University Grenoble Alpes, University Savoie Mont Blanc, CNRS, LECA, Grenoble, France 4Kosmos – Museo di Storia Naturale dell’Università di Pavia, Pavia, Italy 5Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy 6I.P.L.A., Istituto per le Piante da Legno e l`Ambiente, Torino, Italy Correspondence Gentile Francesco Ficetola, Dipartimento di Scienze e Politiche Ambientali, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Celoria 10, 20126 Milano, Italy. Email: francesco.ficetola@gmail.com Funding information Italian Ministry for Research, Grant/Award Number: 2017KLZ3MA Editor: Ana Margarida Coelho dos Santos Abstract Aim: Analyses of biogeographical patterns and macroecology of islands require large datasets reporting the occurrence of species. The Mediterranean region is a biodiver- sity hotspot, which hosts a large number of reptile species and has been the focus of many studies. Nevertheless, comprehensive inventories describing the features and biodiversity of these environments are lacking. We gathered a dataset summarizing data on reptile distribution on islands of the Mediterranean basin and Macaronesia, also including detailed information on the geographical features. Location: Islands from the Mediterranean Basin, the Atlantic Ocean within the Mediterranean biogeographical region, and Macaronesia (Canary and Savage Islands, Azores, Madeira and Cape Verde). Time period: Present. Taxon: Reptiles (squamates and turtles). Methods: Initially, we developed a geographical database describing islands of the study region, then gathered information on reptile occurrences from 757 bibliograph- ical sources, including atlases, published papers and the grey literature. Through a critical review of these sources, we also obtained information on the status of popula- tions (native, island endemic or non-native) and on the reliability of occurrence data. Results: We obtained basic geographical information from 1875 islands covering the whole study region and with a very broad range of geographical features. We gath- ered >4150 records of reptile occurrence on islands, referring to 198 taxonomic units (species or species complexes); information on population status was available for 84.9% of records. Data are provided as comma-delimited text files. Main conclusions: The database provides a key resource for biogeographical analyses and can also serve as a backbone for conservation studies. The availability of a large database on island features can also be useful for biogeographers working on other taxonomic groups. Nevertheless, more data are required for some geographical areas, in order to ascertain the status (e.g., native vs. non-native) of many populations and to understand the interplay between natural and human-driven processes.

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Cette note est destinée à faire le point sur le peuplement herpétologique du Maroc. Elle comprend: — Une liste des formes effectivement présentes au Maroc, avec les affinités biogéographiques des espèces, et éventuellement les travaux récents où ces formes sont étudiées. — Des commentaires sur les espèces africaines douteuses en Europe et européennes douteuses en Afrique. — Une liste des espèces à rechercher au Maroc. — Une discussion sommaire sur la systématique de certaines espèces marocaines.

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In comparison with other palearctic lizards with 40 days at 29° C and 54 days at 25° C, the incuba- tion period of Podarcis (Teira) perspici/lata takes much longer: 62 days and 87 days respectively. Podarcis (Teira) dugesii and Lacerta cappadocica have similar long durations. Possibly the young tide over the long, dry summer in the egg. The strong egg-shell is illustrated. The egg growth of P. perspicillata - as that of other palearctic li- zards - does not show a resting stage. Using data of 26 species bred under identical conditions, the possible existence of temperature optima - or temperatures in the natural habitats to which the eggs are adapted for the development of the em- bryos is investigated. Between 25-29° C a change of 1o C leads to a 3,5 days change in incubation period. P. perspicil/ata at 25° C takes 31,6 days · longer than average. An increase of9° Cis needed to lead to the average duration. An `optimum` temperature for P. perspici/lata eggs is thus deter- mined to be 34° C.

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An as yet undiagnosed illness of lacertid lizards of the genera Algyroides, Gallotia, Lacerta, and Algyroides is described. The main symptoms are runny eyes, apathy, food und water refusal. The illness is almost always fatal. Antibiotics like tetracyclines and sulphathiazole had no effect. It is not known whether the disease is contagious. Some species like green lizards seem to be more susceptible. Stress is thought to possibly play an important role in this disease.

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The interspecific relationships among female size, clutch size, egg size, and hatchling size were examined for 64 European lacertids. The eggs of all species increased linearly in both linear dimensions and mass during incubation. Across species initial egg mass was positively correlated with juvenile mass, with an allometric relationship exponent of 0.87. Initial egg mass across species increased proportionally with female mass to the power of 0.57. Moreover, an increase in maternal mass was also accompanied by an increase in clutch size. The number of eggs per clutch across species scaled with female mass to the power of 0.39. Removing the effect of female mass resulted in a negative correlation between egg mass and clutch size. Species for which the average egg size was lower than expected on the basis of female mass, tended to have larger relative clutch size. The total egg mass per clutch was about one third of female mass (exponent 0.94).

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In the madeiran lizard, Podarcis dugesii (Milne-Edwards, 1829) adult animals force juveniles to use pessimal habitats with few escape sites. Consequently, juvenile individuals in populations with a high density show the highest rate of tail breaks.

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We sequenced the complete control region (CR) and adjacent tRNAs, partial 12S rRNA, and cytochrome b (over 3100 bp) from eight individuals of Madeiran wall lizards, Lacerta dugesii, from four distinct island populations. The tRNAs exhibit a high degree of intraspecific polymorphisms compared to other vertebrates. All CR sequences include a minisatellite that varies in length between populations but is apparently fixed within them. Variation in minisatellite length appears between populations separated by apparently very short evolutionary time spans. Many motifs identified in the CR of other vertebrates are not highly conserved, although conserved blocks are identifiable between the few published reptile CR sequences. Overall there are extensive differences in the internal organization of the reptile CR compared to the more widely studied mammals and birds. Variability in the CR is lower than in cytochrome b, but higher than in 12S rRNA. Phylogenetic analysis of these sequences produces a well-resolved estimate of relationships between populations.

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Partial sequences from two mitochondrial DNA genes, cytochrome b and 12S rRNA, were used to assess the phylogenetic re- lationships of populations of Lacerta dugesii from the volcanic Atlantic islands of Madeira, the Desertas, Porto Santo, and the Selvagens. All four-island groups are genetically distinguishable and populations within each contain similar degrees of genetic diversity. Molecular clock estimates suggest that the islands were colonized much later after their emergence compared to other Atlantic islands, possibly due to their greater geographical isolation. Mismatch analysis of all populations is consistent with ex- ponential growth, as expected after colonization of empty niches. The Selvagens contain genetic substructuring between the islets.

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Genetic differentiation among nine populations of the endemic lizard Lacerta dugesii Milne-Edwards 1829 (Lacertidae) from four groups of islands constituting the Archipelago of Madeira, was investigated by protein electrophoresis at 23 enzyme loci. Among twenty polymorphic loci, the total genetic diversity was due primarily to intra-population variation. The allele and genotypic frequencies among populations showed some heterogeneity, allowing the species to present a structuring pattern compatible with their geographical clustering. Some evidence suggests that selection actring on some loci in different ecological conditions may be responsible for the clustering of the populations studied. There was no apparent isolation effect expected under an “island” model of population divergence, and no correlation was found between genetic and geographic distances among populations. Morphological variation of the proposed three L. dugesii subspecies is not congruent with the allozyme analysis. This most probably suggest a rapid colonization of the isloands followed by a strong effect of selection operating over the morphological characters used to define the subspecies.

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As on many other islands, most of the seabird species breeding in the Azores archipelago are now restricted to tiny remnants of their former nesting range, due mainly to the consequences of the introduction of mammals by man. Praia islet (off Graciosa island) holds six seabird species, four of which are classified as species “of Conservation Concern” in Europe and another one is considered globally “Vulnerable”. Habitat restoration, combining rabbit Oryctolagus cuniculus eradication in 1997, installation of artificial nest boxes for terns in 1996 and for storm-petrels in 2000, and native plant re-introduction between 1998 and 2003, led to a noticeable recovery of vegetation cover and seabird breeding numbers. Here we present updated data concerning the population trends of the Common Tern Sterna hirundo, the Roseate Tern S. dougallii, the Madeiran Storm-petrel Hydrobates castro and the Azores-endemic Monteiro’s Storm-petrel H. monteiroi on Praia islet. Whereas storm-petrel numbers in artificial nests have kept increasing since 2000, tern numbers have been fluctuating since the mid-2000s. However, and despite the current absence of mammals on Praia islet, seabirds still face threats when breeding. Turnstones Arenaria interpres and Starlings Sturnus vulgaris granti consume tern eggs, and introduced Madeiran Lizards Lacerta dugesii may prey on Monteiro’s Storm-petrel chicks.

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A phylogenetic-comparative approach was used to assess and refine existing secondary structure models for a frequently studied region of the mitochondrial encoded large subunit (16S) rRNA in two large lizard lineages within the Scincomorpha, namely the Scincidae and the Lacertidae. Potential pairings and mutual information were analyzed to identify site interactions present within each lineage and provide consensus secondary structures. Many of the interactions proposed by previous models were supported, but several refinements were possible. The consensus structures allowed a detailed analysis of rRNA sequence evolution. Phylogenetic trees were inferred from Bayesian analyses of all sites, and the topologies used for maximum likelihood estimation of sequence evolution parameters. Assigning gamma-distributed relative rate categories to all interacting sites that were homologous between lineages revealed substantial differences between helices. In both lineages, sites within helix G2 were mostly conserved, while those within helix E18 evolved rapidly. Clear evidence of substantial site-specific rate variation (covarion-like evolution) was also detected, although this was not strongly associated with specific helices. This study, in conjunction with comparable findings on different, higher-level taxa, supports the ubiquitous nature of site-specific rate variation in this gene and justifies the incorporation of covarion models in phylogenetic inference.

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Morphological divergence under gene flow was investigated in the wall lizard Teira dugesii from the Atlantic island of Madeira island. Lizards (n=334) were sampled using a matched pairs design at four distinct coastal localities. Matched pairs comprised adjacent (<1 km) grey shingle beach and inland sites. Luminances of specific dorsal areas were recorded for each RGB channel from digital photographs taken in the field. Lizards were found to be significantly darker at beach sites than inland sites. Geometric morphometric analyses using 35 landmarks placed on dorsal photographs of the head revealed significant divergence between beach/inland habitats: wider snouts were found at beach sites. Genotyping-by-sequencing of 93 individuals provided 19311 cross-genomic SNPs. A spatial principal components analysis showed significant genomic divergence across the four sampled localities and within these localities. However, there was no evidence that beach and inland populations formed distinct lineages. Patterns of genomic divergence were compared with those generated from simulations under three models. Primary findings were repeated across all four localities. The model of divergence without gene flow was rejected, while the most strongly supported model incorporating two periods of gene flow: an early period of lower gene flow followed by a period of higher gene flow. Gene flow from inland to beach was greater than that in the opposite direction. This study demonstrates ecologically significant morphological divergence in the face of gene flow and adds to understanding of how divergence and speciation may occur within small islands.

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Limited spatial separation within small islands suggests that observed population divergence may occur due to habitat differences without interruption to gene flow but strong evidence of this is scarce. The wall lizard Teira dugesii lives in starkly contrasting shingle beach and inland habitats on the island of Madeira. We used a matched pairs sampling design to examine morphological and genomic divergence between four beach and adjacent (<1 km) inland areas. Beach populations are significantly darker than corresponding inland populations. Geometric morphometric analyses reveal divergence in head morphology: beach lizards have generally wider snouts. Genotyping-by-sequencing allows the rejection of the hypothesis that beach populations form a distinct lineage. Bayesian analyses provide strong support for models that incorporate gene flow, relative to those that do not, replicated at all pairs of matched sites. Madeiran lizards show morphological divergence between habitats in the face of gene flow, revealing how divergence may originate within small islands.

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Data on the distribution of Teira perspicillata on Menorca, on its habitat and syntopic occurrence with Podarcis siculus cetti and Tarentola mauritanica are reported.

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Rates of tail regeneration in the Madeira wall lizard (Lacerta dugesii) and the slow-worm (Anguis fragilis) were studied. L. dugesii regenerates very rapidly, the new tail sometimes attaining a maximum rate of growth of 2`6 mm a day during the fifth week after autotomy. By the twelfth week 90% of the original tail length has been replaced. Average regeneration rates of samples of lizards were reduced after repeated autotomies, but our investigation of this problem was probably complicated by another factor, the amount of tail lost, and is inconclusive. The tip of the regenerate grows more rapidly than the rest; no elongation occurs at its cranial aspect. Anguis, even when kept at 27°C, regenerates its tail very slowly, the best performance observed being a new tail of 5 mm after 14 weeks. The longest natural regenerate seen (16 mm) may have taken several years to produce in the wild. The histological features of regeneration in Anguis are basically similar to those in other lizards. The new osteoderms are formed entirely in the subepidermal tissues but have a regular relationship with the scales. Some nerve fibres are regenerated with the ependymal tube. The scales on the lizard`s regenerating tail develop in a different manner from those in the lizard embryo and show suggestive resemblances to mammalian hairs.

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Relationships among representatives of five genera of lacertid lizards from Iberia, Morocco, and South Africa were studied using quantitative micro-complement fixation analysis of serum albumin evolution. Using the albumin molecular clock to establish divergence times we suggest (1) South African Ichnotropis and North African Psammodromus diverged from the lineage representing Lacerta lepida-L. monticola during the Oligocene, (2) South African Pedioplanis and Heliobolus diverged from this lineage during the late Miocene, and (3) ancestral representatives of L. andreanszkyi, L. perspicillata and Podarcis hispanica diverged from lineages leading to L. monticola and L. lepida during the mid-Miocene. Radiation within the Palearctic Lacertidae has clearly been extensive, yet fewer than twenty percent of the species in this radiation have been examined biochemically. Until additional data can be gathered, the current classification of the Palearctic Lacertidae cannot be much improved and we recommend adherence to the taxonomy proposed by Arnold (1973).

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Oukaiemeden Plateau is a herpetologically rich locality in the High Atlas (Morocco) where four lizard species coexist in strict sympatry: three lacertids (Lacerta perspicillata chabanaudi, L. andreanszkyi and Podarcis vaucheri - formerly P. hispanica vaucheri) and one gekkonid (Quedenfeldtia trachyblepharus). The diet composition of this lizard community during the early spring was analysed based on 132 faecal pellets which could be individually assigned to a species and a size and sex class. Quedenfeldtia trachyblepharus had the highest prey number and the most specialized prey composition based mainly on small Coleoptera (62.5%) which were consumed in aggregates. All three lacertids displayed higher but similar levels of populational prey diversity. Lacerta p. chabanaudi mainly fed on flying insects, whereas L. andreanszkyi and P. vaucheri had diets based on terrestrial prey. Larger lizards ate larger prey at both inter- and intraspecific levels. Species overlap was medium-high (48-84%). Within species, P. vaucheri showed moderate segregation between males and females (74% overlap) whereas the other species did not (> 94%). Pseudocommunity analyses revealed community structure based on segregation due to prey not consumed (species) and to the restriction of niche breadth (classes). The influences of species interactions on habitat use, restrictions in trophic availability and evolutionary history as determinant factors are discussed.

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It has been suggested that dorsal colour patterns and defence strategies could have coevolved in reptiles, the striped species being more prone to flee compared with the spotted species that rely more on crypsis. Because of the confounding effects of phylogeny and habitat, we compared closely related forms that share the same habitats and predation pressures but display different patterns. The spotted (chabanaudi) and the striped (pellegrini) forms of the Lacerta perspicillata (= Teira perspicillata) Duméril and Bibron, 1839 complex are reproductively isolated in a locality where they live in syntopy. The responses of lizards to a direct attack by a predator, simulated by the approach of a researcher, were investigated. Both forms displayed divergent antipredatory behaviours (escaping and recovering) to optimize survival. Chabanaudi lizards showed longer approach distances and took more time to abandon shelter than pellegrini lizards when the effects of temperature and of distance fled were removed. Reappearance was related with previous flight in chabanaudi but with thermal quality of the refuge in pellegrini. Although both used similar refuges, chabanaudi selected bigger rocks that were less accessible to terrestrial predators but were more prone to bird attacks, whereas pellegrini selected fragmented rocks that faced more terrestrial predation. Our results support the hypothesis of coevolution between pattern and antipredatory behaviour.

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We discuss three aspects of the thermal biology of lacertid lizards. First, we provide an overview of the available data on field body temperatures (Tb), the thermal sensitivity of various performance functions and selected body temperatures in different species of lacertid lizards. We also briefly summarise information on the mechanisms of thermoregulation. Second, we discuss recent developments to estimate the »precision« of thermoregulation, and the contribution of distinct behavioural mechanisms. Finally, we revise available evidence for the existence of evolutionary adjustments of thermal characteristics in lacertid lizards. Existing studies have mainly dealt with within- and among-species differences in thermoregulatory behaviour (selected temperatures) and thermal physiology of adults (optimal temperatures, heating rates). Available data provide only limited evidence for clear-cut evolutionary shifts in thermal physiology characteristics along climatic gradients.

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Samples of Lacerta dugesii were collected on the Madeiran islands, measured and scored for number of scales in seven scale rows. Body length is related to age. Scale number varies between the island groups but does not appear to decrease in variance with age. Relative leg length declines in variability with age and varies significantly from one sample to another on Madeira.

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Lizards use chemical cues to locate and identify prey and plant food, assess the nutritional quality of food, and detect plant toxins. Among insectivorous lizards, all actively foraging species studied respond strongly to prey chemicals sampled lingually, but ambush foragers do not. Much recent research has been devoted to assessing differential responses to food and nonfood chemicals (i.e., food-chemical discrimination) by omnivorous and herbivorous species and determining whether correlated evolution has occurred between plant diet and plant-chemical discrimination. We conducted experimental studies of food-chemical discrimination by two species of teiid lizards, the omnivorous Cnemidophorus murinus and the actively foraging insectivorous Ameiva ameiva. The omnivore distinguished both prey and plant chemicals from control substances. The insectivore exhibited prey-chemical, but not plant-chemical, discrimination, as indicated by tongue-flicking and biting. A comparative analysis using concentrated-changes tests showed that correlated evolution has occurred between plant consumption and plant-chemical discrimination in a major lizard taxon, Lacertiformes. These results extend and strengthen previous findings of similar correlated evolution to a new group and add to a growing database indicating that omnivorous lizards use chemical cues to assess both prey and plant foods.

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One of Darwin`s most widely known conjectures is that prey are tame on remote islands, where mammalian predators are absent. Many species appear to permit close approach on such islands, but no comparative studies have demonstrated reduced wariness quantified as flight initiation distance (FID; i.e. predator–prey distance when the prey begins to flee) in comparison with mainland relatives. We used the phylogenetic comparative method to assess influence of distance from the mainland and island area on FID of 66 lizard species. Because body size and predator approach speed affect predation risk, we included these as independent variables. Multiple regression showed that FID decreases as distance from mainland increases and is shorter in island than mainland populations. Although FID increased as area increased in some models, collinearity made it difficult to separate effects of area from distance and island occupancy. FID increases as SVL increases and approach speed increases; these effects are statistically independent of effects of distance to mainland and island occupancy. Ordinary least-squares models fit the data better than phylogenetic regressions, indicating little or no phylogenetic signal in residual FID after accounting for the independent variables. Our results demonstrate that island tameness is a real phenomenon in lizards.

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In snakes, many of which have fairly specialized diets, there is a correspondence between diet and chemosensory responsiveness to food cues not yet demonstrated in lizards, most of which are generalist insectivores. If such a correspondence exists for plants consumed by omnivorous species, we can make two predictions. Actively foraging insectivorous lizards such as most lacertids should exhibit prey chemical discrimination, but be unresponsive to chemicals from palatable plants. Omnivorous species derived from insectivores should discriminate both prey and plant chemicals from control substances. We show in experiments testing lingual and biting responses to food cues and control stimuli that the lacertid insectivores Podarcis hispanica and Lacerta perspicillata exhibit prey, but not plant, chemical discrimination and the omnivore P.sicula discriminates both prey and plant chemicals from control substances. The findings are consistent with the hypothesis that correlated evolution has occurred between plant consumption and plant chemical discrimination in lacertids, but data are needed for several more lineages of independently derived omnivores and for additional insectivores to test the hypothesis statistically.

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Lacerta dugesii, the small lizard of the Madeiran archipelago, exhibits a variety of dorsal colors ranging from green to shades of brown or black, with or without lateral stripes. The preponderant colors in the lizard population vary according to the locality. Dorsal colors could theoretically have a cryptic or thermal function. Our experiments on the rate of warming and cooling of differently colored lizards under field conditions suggest that color is unimportant for heat balance in this species. Lizard size probably has a small effect, but the most important factor is insolation which is most easily altered by moving into sunshine or shade. The temperatures attained by acrylic models painted nonglossy black or reflective silver and placed in the sun or shade support these conclusions. Raptorial birds, gulls and feral cats are common in Madeira and are likely to be visual hunters of lizards. Selective predation is a more attractive hypothesis to explain the variation than is our thermal hypothesis.

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Assessment of parasites and their pathogenicity is essential for studying the ecology of populations and understanding their dynamics. In this study, we investigate the prevalence and intensity of infection of haemogregarines (phylum Apicomplexa) in two sympatric lizard species, Podarcis vaucheri and Scelarcis perspicillata, across three localities in Morocco, and their effect on host immune response. We used the Phytohaemagglutinin (PHA) skin testing technique to relate the level of immune response with parasite infection. Prevalence and intensity levels were estimated with microscopy, and 18S rRNA gene sequences were used to confirm parasite identity. All parasites belong to the haemogregarine lineage found in other North African reptiles. There were differences in prevalence between localities and sexes. Overall, infected lizards were larger than uninfected ones, although we did not detect differences in parasitaemia across species, sex or locality. The swelling response was not related to the presence or number of haemogregarines, or to host body size, body condition, sex or species. We found no evidence of impact for these parasites on the circulating blood cells or the hosts’ immune system, but more data is needed to assess the potential impact of mixed infections, and the possibility of cryptic parasite species.

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Comparative analyses were carried out about the variability of the pileal shields of different species belonging to the family Lacertidae. The results of the comparisons have been evaluated in respect to the phylogenetical relationships existing between the different genera and species of the family.

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The Madeiran lizard Lacerta muralis dugesii was observed visiting flowers of the introduced species Aloe arborescens and of the indigenous Echium nervosum; a small lizard could put its head into the flower, presumably to drink nectar. Both plants were growing near walls inhabited by lizards. It is suggested that this lizard-flower inter-relationship may be a possible model of a palaeo-ecological connection between pre-angiosperms and reptilian pre-birds.

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Se describe por primera vez el comportamiento de rehidratación de Scelarcis perspicillata. En julio de 2022 se pudo observar un espécimen salvaje lamiendo las gotas de agua del rocío en varias hojas de una alcaparra Capparis spinosa. Esta fuente de humedad puede ser la única disponible durante los meses de verano en los hábitats rocosos poco vegetados que ocupa esta especie en Menorca.

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The study of flower visitor behavior and pollen transport dynamics within and between plants can be of great importance, especially for threatened or rare plant species. In this work, we aim to assess the flower visitor assemblage of the Madeiran endemic Echium candicans and evaluate the performance of the most common visitors through the analysis of their foraging behavior and pollen loads. The flower visitor assemblage of E. candicans is diverse, including several insect groups and the endemic lizard Teira dugesii, but bees are the most common visitors. In general, large bees (Amegilla quadrifasciata, Apis mellifera, and Bombus spp.) had the highest average visitation rates (>18 flowers/min) and their pollen loads had higher percentages of homospecific pollen (>66%) when compared with butterflies and hoverflies. The honeybee (Apis mellifera) and two bumblebees (Bombus terrestris and B. ruderatus) were the most efficient flower visitors of E. candicans, but their foraging behavior seems to favor geitonogamy. Other visitors, such as butterflies and the small bee Lasioglossum wollastoni, may have a complementary role to the honeybee and bumblebee species, as their high mobility is associated with fewer flower visits on each plant and may promote xenogamy. Two non-native bees (A. mellifera and B. ruderatus) are important flower visitors of E. candicans and may contribute mostly to self-pollination rendering the endemic plant more vulnerable to inbreeding effects.

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Reptiles are the most common non-flying terrestrial vertebrates in insular ecosystems, being commonly associated with seabird colonies, where they use the resources made available by the presence of birds, and sometimes prey on the birds. Selvagem Grande is an important seabird colony. Cory’s shearwater, Calonectris borealis, nests in this island on burrows and rock cavities. In these nests, it is possible to find a high abundance of invertebrates, many of them bird ectoparasites. Selvagem Grande is also the home of a lacertid, the Madeiran wall lizard, Teira dugesii. This small omnivorous lizard is often found in Cory’s shearwater nests, and sometimes preys on chicks and eggs of this species. Like other lacertids, T. dugesii is diurnal, heliothermic and thermophile, relying on high temperatures to be active. Despite this, it’s common to find active Madeiran Wall lizards in Cory’s nests during the night. Cory’s shearwaters, like other seabirds, return to land at night to feed the chicks and it is plausible that the lizards may be extending its daily cycle to take advantage of the leftover food. It is also plausible that the lizards are using the residual heat of the nests or of the birds to maintain a higher internal temperature during the night. The present study aims to improve the knowledge about the relationship between these two species by characterizing abiotic and biotic conditions in Cory’s nests, assessing lizard activity and behavior and determining the main stimuli attracting lizards to the nests, and describing the diel thermal cycle of the lizards associated with nests. The nests were filmed to describe the daily variation in activity and behavior of lizards. The influence of the stimuli “sardine smell” and “heat” in lizards was tested during the day and night. Finally, the daily variation of T. dugesii’s body temperature, with and without access to nests, was described. All sampling took place during 3 distinct phases of Cory’s reproductive cycle: incubation period, chick rearing, and their abandonment of nests. Despite occupied nests being deeper, their thermal conditions were not different from unoccupied ones. Unoccupied nests had fewer invertebrates, housing only about 2% of the ectoparasites found in occupied nests. Lizards displayed a more frequent and wider array of behaviors, especially those related to feeding, in occupied nests. Lizard activity in nests with birds was particularly intense just after the chicks hatched. During this time, individuals of T. dugesii were 3 times more present and spent 7 times more time searching for food in occupied nests. Lizards responded more rapidly and in greater numbers to the stimulus “sardine smell”, both during the day and night. Despite being apparently ineffective in attracting lizards, the stimulus “heat” was used for thermoregulation whenever available. Madeiran Wall lizard body temperatures, despite being almost always higher, varied with the environment. Of the 43 lizards captured during the night, 13 were found inside Cory’s nests and even underneath chicks. The measured body temperature in these lizards was 4.40 ± 1.63 ºC above the environmental temperature. Only the heat emitted by the nests occupants explains such temperature differences during the night. This is one of the few recorded cases of nocturnal activity in lacertids and possibly the first one involving thermoregulation in birds’ nests.

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The analysis of biogeographical structure and patterns of endemism are central topics of biogeography, but require exhaustive distribution data. A lack of accurate broad-scale information on the distribution of reptiles has so far limited the analyses of biogeographical structure. Here we analysed the distribution of reptiles within the broad-sense Western Palearctic to assess biogeographical regionalization using phylogenetic and non-phylogenetic approaches, identified areas of endemism and evaluated the environmental factors pro- moting community uniqueness and endemism. We gathered distributional records from the literature and from the field, mapping the distribution of all the Western Palearctic reptiles on a 1-degree resolution grid. bsim dissimilarity and hierarchical clustering was used to identify bioregions, analysing data both at the species and at the genus level, and considering phylogenetic dissimilarity. Consensus areas of endemism were identified on the basis of the optimality criterion. We then assessed whether biogeographical structure is related to present-day climate, insularity, orography and velocity of climate change during the Late Qua- ternary. The genus-level analysis identified five main biogeographical regions within the Western Palearctic, in partial agreement with previous proposals, while the species-level analysis identified more bioregions, largely by dividing the ones identified by genera. Phylogenetic bioregions were generally consistent with the non- phylogenetic ones. The strongest community uniqueness was observed in subtropical warm climates with seasonal precipitation and low productivity. We found nine consensus areas of endemism, mostly in regions with limited velocity of Quaternary climate change and warm subtropical climates. The biogeographical structure of Western Palearctic reptiles is comparable to what has been observed in other vertebrates, with a clear distinction between the Saharo-Arabian-Sindian and Euro-Mediterranean herpetofaunas. Unlike other vertebrates, in reptiles the highest uniqueness and endemism is observed in dry climates, but the velocity of climate change during the Quaternary remains a major driver of endemism across all the vertebrates.

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Besnoitia cysts in the heart of a lizard (Lacerta dugesii) from the islands of Madeira are the first record of besnoitiosis in a poikilothermic animal in the Old World. The size of the cysts corresponds to those found in lizard genera (Basiliscus and Ameiva) from Panama which belong to B. darlingi. Up to now nothing is known concerning the life cycle of this species from Madeira but it seems possible that cats function as definitive hosts as well as in the other species.

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Climatic conditions changing over time and space shape the evolution of organisms at multiple levels, including temperate lizards in the family Lacertidae. Here we reconstruct a dated phylogenetic tree of 262 lacertid species based on a supermatrix relying on novel phylogenomic datasets and fossil calibrations. Diversification of lacertids was accompanied by an increasing disparity among occupied bioclimatic niches, especially in the last 10 Ma, during a period of progressive global cooling. Temperate species also underwent a genome- wide slowdown in molecular substitution rates compared to tropical and desert-adapted lacertids. Evaporative water loss and preferred temperature are correlated with bioclimatic parameters, indicating physiological adaptations to climate. Tropical, but also some popu- lations of cool-adapted species experience maximum temperatures close to their preferred temperatures. We hypothesize these species-specific physiological preferences may con- stitute a handicap to prevail under rapid global warming, and contribute to explaining local lizard extinctions in cool and humid climates.

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Field observations of Joger`s Maghreb lizard, Teira dugesii jogeri (BISCHOFF, OSENEGG & MAYER, 1989), were made duringthree brief visits to the island of Porto Santo. Information on ecological niche utilization and behavior is provided. The threetypes of resting positioning previously described for Teira dugesii Arc complemented by a fourth type for the subspeciesjogeri. In addition, data on the variability of colour and pattern is made available, mainly in the form of photographs. Thewide food spectrum is described, and the threats facing these lizards in the form of possible predators and man are discussed.Key words: Reptilia: Squamata: Lacertidae: Lacertinae: Teira dugesii jogeri (BISCHOFF, OSENEGG & MAYER, 1989): behaviour;diet; colour and pattern variability; Europe: Portugal: Makaronesian Islands: Madeira Archipelago: Porto Santo.

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Plusieurs séjours au Maroc entre 1974 et 1978 effectués soit dans le cadre de la RCP 249 du C.N.R.S. soit à l`occasion de voyages touristiques ont permis de rassembler des informations complémentaires sur l`herpétofaune marocaine. Captures, observations de spécimens écrasés sur les routes, mues et déterminations visuelles ont permis d`établir le texte qui suit. Il nous a paru intéressant de rassembler les observations ainsi obtenues avant leur Intégration dans un atlas des Reptiles du Maroc qui devrait voir le jour sous peu. Le découpage régional qui a été retenu est celui qui a été proposé par J. BONS (1967). Les observations les plus originales sont marquées d`un astérisque (*) et certaines sont commentées dans la conclusion.

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In recent years there has been an exponential increase in the amount of published DNA sequences, as it has become one of the most popular sources of data for reconstructing phylogenies. A number of studies have attempted to resolve the relationships of groups of lacertids using mitochondrial DNA sequence data, in particular Podarcis and Gallotia (e.g. THORPE et al., 1994; 1996; GONZALEZ et al., 1996; FU et al., 1997; HARRIS, 1997; HARRIS et al., 1998a; 1999; CASTILLA et al., 1999a,b). Reassessment of these data suggest some alternative phylogenies to those previously published, and also highlight possible problems. Two studies have attempted to unravel the phylogeny of the whole family using mitochondrial DNA sequences (FU, 1998; HARRIS et al., 1998b). By combining these essentially congruent data sets, and reanalysing levels of support for the phylogenies produced, a more complete estimate of relationships across the family is produced. This is then compared to alternative sources of evidence, primarily morphological (ARNOLD, 1989), biochemical (MAYER & BENYR, 1994) and karyological (OLMO et al., 1993). Reasons for discrepencies are discussed, as are the relative advantages and disadvantages of the different sources of phylogenetic inference.

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Additional data on the distribution of terrestrial herpetofauna from Morocco are pre- sented, based on fieldwork carried out in March and May 2008. Thirty-eight species were recorded from 78 localities. Some of these represent considerable range extensions for the species, indicating that more prospection is needed to complement the existing knowledge of herpetofauna from this country.

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DNA sequences from parts of the 12S, 16S and cytochrome b mitochondrial genes, which totalled 1049 aligned base pairs, were used to estimate the relationships of 49 species of Lacertidae, including representatives of 19 out of the 23 recognized genera and 23 species of the paraphyletic genus Lacerta. These data were used, together with morphological information, to estimate the relationships within the family. Molecular evidence corroborates the monophyletic status of many genera and species groups originally based on morphology. It indicates that Psammodromus forms a clade with Gallotia, which is the sister taxon of all other lacertids. These comprise three units: the primarily Afrotropical armatured group; the largely Oriental Takydromus; and the west Palaearctic Lacerta and its derivatives, Podarcis and Algyroides. Morphology also supports the first three assemblages, but suggests that they are derived from a paraphyletic Lacerta. Within Lacerta and its allies, DNA sequence analysis corroborates the affinity of some members of each of the subgenera Lacerta s. str. and Timon, and of the L. saxicola group. It also supports the relationship of L. monticola, L. bonnali and L. horvathi, and suggests that the L. parva–L. fraasi clade and L. brandti are not related to Psammodromus–Gallotia, as morphology indicates, but instead are associated respectively with the L. danfordi and L. saxicola groups. DNA sequence data provide additional evidence that the eastern Arabian `Lacerta` jayakari and `L.` cyanura are members of the armatured clade and also sister species. Our analysis supports an origin for present lacertids in west Eurasia. The armatured clade invaded Africa, probably in the mid-Miocene, spreading widely and evolving increasingly xeric-adapted forms, one lineage of which later moved back into the Palaearctic. `Lacerta` jayakari and `L.` cyanura are assigned to Omanosaura, Lutz and Mayer 1986. The name Gallotiinae Cano, Baez, Lopez-Jurado and Ortega, 1984 is available for the Gallotia–Psammodromus clade, Eremiainae Shcherbak 1975 for the armatured clade and Lacertinae for Lacerta, Podarcis and Algyroides. Two new subgenera of Lacerta are proposed here: Caucasilacerta for L. saxicola and its allies, and Parvilacerta for L. parva and L. fraasi.

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Lacerta (Teira) perspicillata (Duméril and Bibron, 1839) is a small montane rockdwelling lizard, occurring in the western Maghreb (Morocco and Northwest Algeria) and in Menorca, where it has probably been introduced anthropogenically (Mayol, 1997). Intraspeci. c morphological variation is considerable. Some authors accept the existence of three subspecies, L. p. perspicillata, L. p. pellegrini and L. p. chabanaudi (Bons, 1968) but others consider them only morphotypes (Mayol, 1997). Although its phylogenetic relationships have been highly debated, mitochondrial sequence data suggest it is sister taxon to the Madeiran lizard Lacerta (Teira) dugesii (Harris et al., 1998; Oliverio et al., 2000). To investigate genetic diversity within L. perspicillata we sequenced part of the 12S rRNA gene from individuals from several populations including all three forms, and compared this to subspeci. c status.

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The evolutionary diversification of many terrestrial vertebrate groups is strongly linked to climatic events in the Cenozoic, the period from 65 Million years ago to today when modern animals first appeared. I investigated the effects of Cenozoic climate change on the taxonomic and morphological diversification of the Old World lizard family Lacertidae, with particular emphasis on the African radiation. African lacertids exhibit an unusual pattern of diversification, in which their highest species richness occurs in deserts north and south of the equator, despite being spread throughout the continent. This disparity is particularly surprising given that desert lacertids are thought to be evolutionarily younger than their mesic-dwelling relatives, suggesting increased diversification rates in arid habitats. To identify the evolutionary factors underlying this pattern, I use a combination of phylogenetic, morphological and ecological techniques. In Chapter 1, I apply Bayesian methods and fossil-based calibrations to molecular sequence data to construct a time-calibrated phylogeny for Lacertidae. I estimate that the family arose in the early Cenozoic, with the majority of their African radiation occurring in the Eocene and Oligocene. In Chapter 2, I describe changes in lacertid body shape across biomes and substrates, and find widespread morphological convergence in similar habitat types. I suggest that in addition to foraging demands, fluctuating and extreme climatic conditions, largely driven by precipitation and temperature, contribute to morphological convergence across independent arid-dwelling clades. Finally, I test if ancestral transitions in ecology, morphology, and rates of diversification temporally coincide with paleoclimatic events in the Cenozoic. I use High Resolution X-ray Computed Tomography to characterize changes in the skull related to life in arid habitats, and apply maximum likelihood methods to test if the origins of those traits temporally coincide with significant shifts in habitat, diversification rates and climatic changes. My results show that African lacertids experienced three major peaks in diversification, accompanied by the evolution of suites of arid-adapted morphological traits. These changes coincide with climatic shifts in Africa, including the transition from closed forests to open grasslands and savanna in the late Oligocene, prior to the peak temperatures of the mid-Miocene Climatic Optimum, and following the formation of the Benguela current leading to hyper-aridity in southern Africa. I conclude that deserts are important centers for reptile evolution, but that expected changes in climate due to global warming may outpace the ability of arid-dwelling species to adapt and persist in the future.

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Background: Although current molecular clock methods offer greater flexibility in modelling evolutionary events, calibration of the clock with dates from the fossil record is still problematic for many groups. Here we implement several new approaches in molecular dating to estimate the evolutionary ages of Lacertidae, an Old World family of lizards with a poor fossil record and uncertain phylogeny. Four different models of rate variation are tested in a new program for Bayesian phylogenetic analysis called TreeTime, based on a combination of mitochondrial and nuclear gene sequences. We incorporate paleontological uncertainty into divergence estimates by expressing multiple calibration dates as a range of probabilistic distributions. We also test the reliability of our proposed calibrations by exploring effects of individual priors on posterior estimates. Results: According to the most reliable model, as indicated by Bayes factor comparison, modern lacertids arose shortly after the K/T transition and entered Africa about 45 million years ago, with the majority of their African radiation occurring in the Eocene and Oligocene. Our findings indicate much earlier origins for these clades than previously reported, and we discuss our results in light of paleogeographic trends during the Cenozoic. Conclusion: This study represents the first attempt to estimate evolutionary ages of a specific group of reptiles exhibiting uncertain phylogenetic relationships, molecular rate variation and a poor fossil record. Our results emphasize the sensitivity of molecular divergence dates to fossil calibrations, and support the use of combined molecular data sets and multiple, well-spaced dates from the fossil record as minimum node constraints. The bioinformatics program used here, TreeTime, is publicly available, and we recommend its use for molecular dating of taxa faced with similar challenges.

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While global variation in taxonomic diversity is strongly linked to latitude, the extent to which morphological disparity follows geographical gradients is less well known. We estimated patterns of lineage diversification, morphological disparity and rates of phenotypic evolution in the Old World lizard family Lacertidae, which displays a nearly inverse latitudinal diversity gradient with decreasing species richness towards the tropics. We found that lacertids exhibit relatively constant rates of lineage accumulation over time, although the majority of morphological variation appears to have originated during recent divergence events, resulting in increased partitioning of disparity within subclades. Among subclades, tropical arboreal taxa exhibited the fastest rates of shape change while temperate European taxa were the slowest, resulting in an inverse relationship between latitudinal diversity and rates of phenotypic evolution. This pattern demonstrates a compelling counterexample to the ecological opportunity theory of diversification, suggesting an uncoupling of the processes generating species diversity and morphological differentiation across spatial scales.

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Using the technique of capture, mark and recapture, here is reported a case of high longevity in the Madeiran lizard, Teira dugesii. It is one of the highest reported values for lacertid lizards (16 years or more) in a wild population.

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Partial sequences of mitochondrial DNA genes (12S rRNA, 16S rRNA and Cytochrome b) and nuclear DNA (c-mos and enolase), as well as enzymatic markers were used to infer colonization patterns and genetic relationships of reptiles from families lacertidae, scincidae and gekkonidae of Madeira, Cape Verde Archipelagos and Gulf of Guinea islands. These markers also allowed us to uncover species introductions in these islands. The data allows us to detect a intra-specific geographical structure on Mabuya maculilabris from São Tomé and a inter-specific geographical structure of the genus Mabuya in Cape Verde Archipelago. It is also possible to detect a well defined intra-specific geographical structure in Lacerta dugesii from the Archipelago of Madeira that presents fixed haplotypes for each of the four groups of islands. Lacerta dugesii has probably been the result of one single colonization event in the Archipelago of Madeira. Our results reject the hypothesis of the anthropological introduction of the species in the Selvagens Islands. Mabuya spp. from Cape Verde islands were also the result of one colonization event followed by a radiation through the islands. Our results from Cape Verde, and data from reptiles endemic to the Canary Islands, suggest that the number of colonization events of skinks is lower than that observed in geckos. Our results from the Gulf of Guinea seems to be an exception to this rule. Mabuya spp. is the result of four different colonization events, one for Mabuya ozorii of Annobon, one for Mabuya affinis of Príncipe and two for the two forms of Mabuya maculilabris (one from Príncipe and one from São Tomé). Probably the two forms of São Tome and Príncipe are different species or belong to a species complex. The geckos from the Gulf of Guinea islands are the result of fewer events of colonization, probably two for Hemidactylus spp. Considering the genus Mabuya we consider five groups of species, one more than the previously published data, that is the North Africa + Turkey group which implies the need to divide the forms of Africa. Using Lacerta dugesii as a model we didn’t find congruence between enzymatic, morphological and molecular data. The molecular markers allow us to detect introduced species as Hemidactylus mabouia in Madeira, Cape Verde and islands of Gulf of guinea islands, as well as Ramphotyphlobs braminus in Annobon. It was also possible to review the taxonomic status of some species. We consider the existence of three subspecies of Lacerta dugesii. In Mabuya from Cape Verde Islands, the previous established relationships are also validated. In Tarentola more genetic distinct groups than those previously established were obtained, and probably we discovered a new subspecies of Tarentola gigas. We confirmed the presence of a Mabuya in Annobon (probably M. ozorii, omitted species on EMBL Reptile database). Two distinct forms of Mabuya maculilabris were found, one in Príncipe and one in São Tomé. The molecular data seems to reject the anthropological introduction of M. maculilabris. The c-mos can be a good phylogenetic marker at the infraspecific level. The same happened for the control region which is. At least in Lacerta dugesii, less variable than cytochrome b.

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the Lacertidae is one of the most diverse and widespread lizard families throughout Eurasia and Africa. Several studies so far have attempted to unravel the phylogeny of Lacertidae using morphological and mole- cular data. However, the intra-family relationships remain unclear. in an effort to explore the phylogenetic relationships within the family Lacertidae, a concatenated dataset of 5727 bp from six genes (two nuclear and four mitochondrial) and 40 genera was assembled based on GenBank database. Phylogenetic inference analy- ses were conducted using Maximum Parsimony (MP), Bayesian inference (Bi) and Maximum Likelihood (ML), revealing that even a combined dataset of both mitochondrial and nuclear genes is not able to resolve the phylogenetic relationships of the Lacertidae family under the tribe level.

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Experimentally assessing the preferred body temperature (Tpref) of ectothermic animals is important to understand thermal adaptation. In lizards, this variable is usually estimated by measuring body temperature in thermal gradients. To quantify the extent to which different experimental setups influence the inferred Tpref values we submitted 65 individual lizards of three species to randomized tests using six different experimental setups at Oukaimeden, Morocco, including setup variants similar to those that have been most often used in lacertids. Among-treatment differences were substantial. Using an infrared bulb as heat source in combination with artificial cold lighting yielded about 5°C lower Tpref estimates than photothermal treatments with an incandescent bulb as heat and light source, possibly because lizards thermoregulated differently without a visual cue related to the heat source, or due to the absence of a natural photoperiod. Photothermal assays in which Tpref was assessed by hourly cloacal measurements over a 10h period yielded 2.2°C lower Tpref estimates than 2h treatments where body temperature was measured every minute with a thermocouple attached to the belly. This probably reflects that the 2h treatments targeted lizards in the initial warming-up phase, whereas the 10h treatment attempts to capture the preferred temperature of a lizard over its entire daily cycle including phases of inactivity. Lastly, we observed large differences among treatments with contact thermometers versus infrared laser thermometer measurements, calling for caution when the latter are used with artificial heat sources. Our data do not provide thorough tests of the physical, behavioural or physiological causes underlying the observed differences between treatments, but illustrate that for meta-analyses where detailed comparisons are needed, a rigorous consideration of the optimal experimental setup and its consistent use will remain necessary.

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The dangers of helminth infestations for lizards, particularly infestations with nematodes und cestodes, are reported. Infection routes, diagnoses, und treatments are described.

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The distribution and the ratios between noradrenaline (NA) and adrenaline (A) cells in eight species belonging to the family Lacertidae were studied. There are variations in the distribution of the two cell types within the gland and a wide range of variation in the NA/A cell ratio. Comparing their data with palaeontological, anatomical and biochemical evidence, the authors are inclined to consider G. galloti and L. graeca as the most ancient lizards among those studied and to ascribe L. graeca to the group Lacerta part II together with L. dugesii. P. pityusensis should also be ascribed to the same group on the basis of the result, of this study. The other four species studied (L. lepida, L. trilineata, L. viridis and L. schreiberi) appear to be of fairly recent origin and should be ascribed to the group Lacerta part I, on the basis of the homogeneous distribution of the chromaffin cells inside the adrenal gland and their low NA/A cell ratios.

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Vertebrate pests cause significant economic loss in several agricultural crops worldwide; therefore, their populations are often controlled through culling. Correctly identifying the main species responsible for the damage is essential to avoid persecuting the wrong targets, yet it is challenging. During 2016 and 2017, we tested the usefulness of camera-trapping (CT) in Terceira Island, Azores, Portugal to identify vertebrate pests. Vineyard owners in this region cull the Azores woodpigeon (Columba palumbus azorica), the common pigeon (Columba livia), the house sparrow (Passer domesticus), the Azores blackbird (Turdus merula azorensis), and the Madeira wall lizard (Teira dugesii) to reduce damage to grapes. Using CT photos and videos, we identified nine species damaging the grape, but four of those were only observed occasionally (< 10 consumption events over 2years). The Madeira lizard (371.09 and 232.47 consumption events100-CT-days in 2016 and 2017, respectively), the house sparrow (284.01 and 21.73 consumption events100-CT-days in 2016 and 2017, respectively), and the Azores blackbird (17.35 and 8.23 consumption events100-CT-days in 2016 and 2017, respectively) had the most frequent consumption events. All three species were most active in the morning (8:00–9:00) and in the afternoon (16:00–17:00 for the Madeira lizard and the house sparrow, and 18:00–19:00 for the Azores blackbird). We demonstrated the advantage of using CT in cultivated habitats to provide valuable information about the identity, behaviour, daily-activity patterns, and relative consumption rates of vineyard pests. We also provided evidence that the endemic Azores woodpigeon and the common pigeon should not be targeted by the farmers in Terceira.

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Aim To map and assess the richness patterns of reptiles (and included groups: amphisbaenians, crocodiles, lizards, snakes and turtles) in Africa, quantify the overlap in species richness of reptiles (and included groups) with the other terrestrial vertebrate classes, investigate the environmental correlates underlying these patterns, and evaluate the role of range size on richness patterns. Location Africa. Methods We assembled a data set of distributions of all African reptile species. We tested the spatial congruence of reptile richness with that of amphibians, birds and mammals. We further tested the relative importance of temperature, precipitation, elevation range and net primary productivity for species richness over two spatial scales (ecoregions and 1° grids). We arranged reptile and vertebrate groups into range-size quartiles in order to evaluate the role of range size in producing richness patterns. Results Reptile, amphibian, bird and mammal richness are largely congruent (r = 0.79–0.86) and respond similarly to environmental variables (mainly productivity and precipitation). Ecoregion size accounts for more variation in the richness of reptiles than in that of other groups. Lizard distributions are distinct with several areas of high species richness where other vertebrate groups (including snakes) are species-poor, especially in arid ecoregions. Habitat heterogeneity is the best predictor of narrow-ranging species, but remains relatively important in explaining lizard richness even for species with large range sizes. Main conclusions Reptile richness varies with similar environmental variables as the other vertebrates in Africa, reflecting the disproportionate influence of snakes on reptile richness, a result of their large ranges. Richness gradients of narrow-ranged vertebrates differ from those of widespread taxa, which may demonstrate different centres of endemism for reptile subclades in Africa. Lizard richness varies mostly with habitat heterogeneity independent of range size, which suggests that the difference in response of lizards is due to their ecological characteristics. These results, over two spatial scales and multiple range-size quartiles, allow us to reliably interpret the influence of environmental variables on patterns of reptile richness and congruency.

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The prevalence of Hepatozoon parasites in 460 lizards from North Africa was studied by amplification and sequencing of the 18S rRNA gene. The phylogenetic analysis of the 18S rRNA gene provides new insights into the phylogeny of these parasites with multiple genetically distinct lineages recovered. Parasite prevalence differed significantly between lacertid lizards and geckos. Our results show that there is limited host specificity and no clear relation to the geographical distribution of Hepatozoon parasites.

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In the Isle of Madeira, with its highly diverse climat zones, Podarcis dugesii (MILNE-EDWARDS, 1829) is found in almost all habitats: rubble shores and cliffs, rocky structures in agricultural land, subarid zones on the Lourenço Peninsula, the highest ridges of the central mountains, and rocks in the Launis woods; from the supralitoral up to the summit of the mountains (1861 m a.s.l.)

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The Madeiran Lizard Teira dugesii shows during basking a special `feet up` attitude that is described in detail.

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Within a 500 m margin along the more than 2,000 km long coastline of Continental Portugal, its coastal islands and atlantic archipelagos (Azores, Madeira, Selvagens) 21 amphibian and 40 reptile taxa (including 5 marine turtles) were recorded; three of them are insular endemisms (Tarentola bischoffi, Podarcis carbonelli berlengensis, and the polytypic Teira dugesii). The extreme maritim-atlantic component of the coastal climate plays a relevant part as biogeographic factor: parallel to the coast eurosiberian and montane species penetrate deep into the mediterranean region (Lissotriton helveticus, Alytes obstetricans, Anguis fragilis, Lacerta schreiberi, Podarcis carbonelli) and reach there the southernmost limit of their distribution area; on the other hand some thermophilous taxa (Pleurodeles waltl, Pelobates cultripes, Pelodytes sp., Podarcis hispanica) reach along the coast in the eurosiberian region their northernmost limit. In the last 30 years the coastal ecosystems were overrun by an excessive urbanisation, caused by inland immigration and tourism. Consequently in many coast sectors the herpetofauna are endangered, often extincted by urban and suburban development with fragmentation, degradation and destruction of habitats. Namely ca. 40 % of the coastal region are protected areas, but the effectiveness of this protection is threatened by many special permissions for building projects and an insufficient supervision of the nature reserves.

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La mayor parte de los anfibios y reptiles que conforman las comunidades de Baleares ha sido introducida. Desde que se iniciara la colonización humana del archipiélago muchas especies se han ido incorporando poco a poco, pero en los últimos 25 años el número de naturalizaciones se ha disparado. La exploración llevada a cabo en un vivero de Mallorca ha permitido hacer un rápido repaso a todas esas introducciones.

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Karyotype and NOR position of three Lacertid species (Acanthodactylus erythrurus, Lacerta schreiberi and Lacerta perspicillata), not estudied yet, are made known in this paper. In the three of them it is observed that 2n = 38 and NF = 38, with 36 acrocentric macrochromosomes and 2 microchromosomes. Neither sexual nor other type variation have been observed. In the three species the only pair of NOR is situated in telomeric position of the 6th chromosomic pair.

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Reptiles are uncommon as seabird predators on islands. While conducting a study on Cory`s Shearwaters (Calonectris diomedea) on Selvagem Grande, North Atlantic, incidental observations during 2006 early hatching period indicated that some chicks were being killed by Madeiran Wall Lizards (Teira dugesii). In the same year and in 2007, the phenomenon was further examined and samples of 78 and 153 nests, respectively, were followed. Also, non-systematic visits were made to other nests. A total of 40 episodes of lizards depredating Cory`s Shearwaters hatchlings was recorded. This hitherto unknown source of predation for this shearwater accounted for the failure of four (5.1%) study nests in 2006 and eight (5.2%) study nests in 2007. All recorded predation cases took place either during or shortly after hatching. Also, non-systematic observations indicated that three other species of burrowing petrels (Bulwer`s Petrel, Bulweria bulwerii; Madeiran Storm-petrel, Oceanodroma castro, White-faced Storm-petrel, Pelagodroma marina) were preyed upon by Madeiran Wall Lizards. Predation by lizards is apparently a phenomenon of lesser concern for Cory`s Shearwaters but the potentially higher impact over the smaller petrel species is not known.

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A commented lacertids list for Europe, Africa, the Middle East, including the Arabian Peninsula and Asia is given.

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The albumins from 41 species of the family Lacertidae representing a substantial part of genera as well as infrageneric groups of the collective genus Lacerta s.l. were investigated by means of the MCF technique. The data allow a chronological estimation of the most important radiation events and their correlation with paleogeographical facts. Our results are in remarkable contradiction to the phylogeny presented by ARNOLD (1989a) based mainly on morphological characters. The most important phylogenetic relationships are: 1. The genera Gallona and Psammodromus are already isolated from the other taxa since the Oligocene. We assess these main branches as subfamilies Gallotiinae and Lacertinae. 2. Lacerta s.str. and Lacerta subgenus Zootoca form the sister group of the remaining Lacertinae. 3. A colonization of Africa in the Lower Miocene has led to a separation in two lines, with mainly Eurasian and African members respectively. 4. ARNOLD`S (I.e.) `Ethiopian and advanced Saharo-Eurasian clade` proved to be a paraphyletic unit, one group of genera being more closely related to European taxa. All techniques applied to the systematics of Lacertidae hitherto are critically discussed. An area-time- hypothesis concerning the phylogeny of Lacertidae is presented. Key words: Lacertidae, phylogeny of; Gallotiinae subfam. nov.; Lacertinae subfam. nov.; micro complement fixation; albumin evolution.

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According to their phylogenetic relationships, the subgenera Zootoca, Omanosaura, and Timon are excluded from the genus Lacerta, and Teira is excluded from the genus Podarcis. On the basis of their morphological and karyological pecularities, they are defined as full genera.

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Investigated the albumins from 31 species and subspecies of the genus Lacerta s.1. by means of the immunoloical techniue Micro-Complement-fixation. Dendrograms were computed by means of the ktch-MargJiash algorithm. Moreover the taxa of the Lacerta saxicola and the Lacerta danfordi comlexes were analyzed by electrophoresis concerning 14 genetic loci. The results were discussel together with karyological and genitalmorphological data so far known yielding the following relationships: Lacerta graeca shows a closer relationshi to the subgenus Podarcis as does the quite closely related species air L. dugesii and L. perspicikata. Lacerta Iaevis probabl is connected closely to Podarcis, too. Lacerta parva shows a closer relationship to the `small izards` than to the sub-genus Lacerta s. str. A clear decision concerning the position of the Lacerta danfordi complex according to chemosystematical data was not possible. It is isolated from the other species probably about as long as L. puma. Biochemical differences between its `species` are too small to confirm their taxonomical revalorisation by Eiselt and Schmidtler Within the Lacerta saxicola complex the investigated taxa show a close relationship. Lacerta praticola and L. derjugini were definitly assigned to this group.

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The family Lacertidae encompasses more than 250 species distributed in the Palearctis, Ethiopis and Orientalis. Lacertids have been subjected in the past to several morphological and molecular studies to establish their phylogeny. However, the problems of convergent adaptation in morphology and of excessively variable molecular markers have hampered the establishment of well supported deeper phylogenetic relationships. Particularly the adaptations to xeric environments have often been used to establish a scenario for the origin and radiation of major lineages within lacertids. Here we present a molecular phylogenetic study based on two nuclear marker genes and representatives of 37 lacertid genera and distinct species groups (as in the case of the collective genus Lacerta). Roughly 1600 bp of the nuclear rag1 and c-mos genes were sequenced and analyzed. While the results provide good support to the hitherto suggested main subfamilies of Gallotiinae (Gallotia and Psammodromus), Eremiainae and Lacertinae [Harris, D.J., Arnold, E.N., Thomas, R.H., 1998. Relationships of lacertid lizards (Reptilia: Lacertidae) estimated from mitochondrial DNA sequences and morphology. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B 265, 1939–1948], they also suggest unexpected relationships. In particular, the oriental genus Takydromus, previously considered the sister-group to the three subfamilies, is nested within Lacertinae. Moreover, the genera within the Eremiainae are further divided into two groups, roughly corresponding to their respective geographical distributions in the Ethiopian and the Saharo-Eurasian ranges. The results support an independent origin of adaptations to xeric conditions in different subfamilies. The relationships within the subfamily Lacertinae could not be resolved with the markers used. The species groups of the collective genus Lacerta show a bush-like topology in the inferred Bayesian tree, suggesting rapid radiation. The composition of the subfamilies Eremiainae and Lacertinae as well as their phylogeography are discussed.

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Aim Body size is instrumental in influencing animal physiology, morphology, ecology and evolution, as well as extinction risk. I examine several hypotheses regarding the influence of body size on lizard evolution and extinction risk, assessing whether body size influences, or is influenced by, species richness, herbivory, island dwelling and extinction risk. Location World-wide. Methods I used literature data and measurements of museum and live specimens to estimate lizard body size distributions. Results I obtained body size data for 99% of the world`s lizard species. The body size–frequency distribution is highly modal and right skewed and similar distributions characterize most lizard families and lizard assemblages across biogeographical realms. There is a strong negative correlation between mean body size within families and species richness. Herbivorous lizards are larger than omnivorous and carnivorous ones, and aquatic lizards are larger than non-aquatic species. Diurnal activity is associated with small body size. Insular lizards tend towards both extremes of the size spectrum. Extinction risk increases with body size of species for which risk has been assessed. Main conclusions Small size seems to promote fast diversification of disparate body plans. The absence of mammalian predators allows insular lizards to attain larger body sizes by means of release from predation and allows them to evolve into the top predator niche. Island living also promotes a high frequency of herbivory, which is also associated with large size. Aquatic and nocturnal lizards probably evolve large size because of thermal constraints. The association between large size and high extinction risk, however, probably reflects a bias in the species in which risk has been studied.

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Aim Temperature influences most components of animal ecology and life history – but what kind of temperature? Physiologists usually examine the influence of body temperatures, while biogeographers and macroecologists tend to focus on environmental temperatures. We aim to examine the relationship between these two measures, to determine the factors that affect lizard body temperatures and to test the effect of both temperature measures on lizard life history. Location World-wide. Methods We used a large (861 species) global dataset of lizard body temperatures, and the mean annual temperatures across their geographic ranges to examine the relationships between body and mean annual temperatures.We then examined factors influencing body temperatures, and tested for the influence of both on ecological and life-history traits while accounting for the influence of shared ancestry. Results Body temperatures and mean annual temperatures are uncorrelated. However, accounting for activity time (nocturnal species have low body temperatures), use of space (fossorial and semi-aquatic species are ‘colder’), insularity (mainland species are ‘hotter’) and phylogeny, the two temperatures are positively correlated. High body temperatures are only associated with larger hatchlings and increased rates of biomass production. Annual temperatures are positively correlated with clutch frequency and annual longevity, and negatively correlated with clutch size, age at first reproduction and longevity. Main conclusions Lizards with low body temperatures do not seem to have ‘slower’ life-history attributes than species with high body temperatures. The longer seasons prevalent in warm regions, and physiological processes that operate while lizards are inactive (but warm enough), make environmental temperatures better predictors of lizard life-history variation than body temperatures. This surprisingly greater effect of environmental temperatures on lizard life histories hints that global warming may have a profound influence on lizard ecology and evolution.

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Aim We provide a new quantitative analysis of lizard reproductive ecology. Comparative studies of lizard reproduction to date have usually considered life-history components separately. Instead, we examine the rate of production (productivity hereafter) calculated as the total mass of offspring produced in a year. We test whether productivity is influenced by proxies of adult mortality rates such as insularity and fossorial habits, by measures of temperature such as environmental and body temperatures, mode of reproduction and activity times, and by environmental productivity and diet. We further examine whether low productivity is linked to high extinction risk. Location World-wide. Methods We assembled a database containing 551 lizard species, their phylogenetic relationships and multiple life history and ecological variables from the literature. We use phylogenetically informed statistical models to estimate the factors related to lizard productivity. Results Some, but not all, predictions of metabolic and life-history theories are supported. When analysed separately, clutch size, relative clutch mass and brood frequency are poorly correlated with body mass, but their product – productivity – is well correlated with mass. The allometry of productivity scales similarly to metabolic rate, suggesting that a constant fraction of assimilated energy is allocated to production irrespective of body size. Island species were less productive than continental species.Mass-specific productivity was positively correlated with environmental temperature, but not with body temperature. Viviparous lizards were less productive than egg-laying species. Diet and primary productivity were not associated with productivity in any model. Other effects, including lower productivity of fossorial, nocturnal and active foraging species were confounded with phylogeny. Productivity was not lower in species at risk of extinction. Main conclusions Our analyses show the value of focusing on the rate of annual biomass production (productivity), and generally supported associations between productivity and environmental temperature, factors that affect mortality and the number of broods a lizard can produce in a year, but not with measures of body temperature, environmental productivity or diet.

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The authors present an actualized and commented list of the amphibia and reptilia species noted in Morocco. The changes witch happened during the 16years after the last checklist established by BoNS(1972) are discussed. These are new additions (species recently discovered in Morocco and new taxa for Science, sorne of witch resulting from systematic modifications of other species or subspecies) and changes of names (new combinations) or status. Problems concerning the exact delimitation of several species are discussed, insisting particularly on the most conflictual groups (e.g. Chalcides, Aoenthodactylus). Thus we think that the number of species in the present checklist is probably surestimated. Taking in account these problems, we must consider this inventory as provisional, till clearing up the several questions still in suspense.

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Lepidosaurs are frequently described as having highly kinetic skulls, and different forms of cranial kinesis have been described as being characteristic of their radiation. The model of amphikinesis proposed by Frazzetta, J Morphol 1962; 111:287–319, which was long considered a synapomorphy of the large suborder Sauria, is now much debated given its uncertain distribution among the various lizard taxa and the lack of data about its morphological correlates. In this article, we analyze the anatomical correlates of different forms of cranial kinesis, with particular regard to the putative saurian amphikinesis, describing the possible diverse skull movements of several species of European gekkotans (Hemidactylus turcicus, Mediodactylus kotschyi, and Tarentola mauritanica) and lacertids (Lacerta agilis, L. bilineata, Podarcis muralis, P. siculus, and Teira dugesii). Using serial and whole-mount histology, we found clear differences between gekkotans and lacertids in the structure of several cranial joints underlining the existence of two degrees of intracranial mobility. The lacertid species possess the anatomical features for streptostyly (quadrate joints) and metakinesis (parietal-supraoccipital and parabasisphenoid-pterygoid joints) and lack the anatomical correlates for mesokinesis (mobility of frontal-parietal and palatine-pterygoid joints) and amphikinesis (coupled mesokinesis, metakinesis, and streptostyly). In contrast, geckos present all the anatomical correlates for amphikinesis as described by the traditional quadratic crank model. Finally, we present a comprehensive summary of the different forms of squamate cranial kinesis, advancing two alternative hypotheses about the evolutionary origin of amphikinesis.

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The Madeiran wall lizard Teira dugesii is a relatively new species to the Azores Archipelago, where it was accidentally introduced about 150 to 200 years ago. This lacertid quickly became naturalised and now occurs in all the nine main islands of the Azores. At Praia Islet, off Graciosa Island, the Madeiran wall lizard was recently observed preying on chicks of the threatened Monteiro’s storm-petrel Hydrobates monteiroi. To characterise the lizards’ trophic niche, we conducted a study of the diet of the Madeiran wall lizard at Praia using stable isotope analysis and next-generation sequencing. Our results indicate that the Madeiran wall lizard has a varied diet, consisting of at least 23 invertebrate taxa, 17 plant species, and occasionally, birds (two species detected, including storm-petrels). Marine derived food items were present in few samples, and it is vital to monitor the trophic interactions at Praia Islet to ensure the conservation of this threatened storm-petrel.

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Monteiro`s Storm-petrel (Hydrobates monteiroi) is a small seabird endemic to the Azores archipelago, where it is known to breed only on two mammal-free islets. Total breeding numbers are between 250 and 300 pairs. During the 2015 breeding season on Praia Islet, six Madeiran wall lizards (Lacerta dugesii) were observed depredating a Monteiro`s Storm-petrel chick about to fledge. In August 2015, a freshly killed chick without its head and four larger dead chicks were found. Eight other chicks had disappeared from their nests since our previous visit in early July. In 2016, there was further evidence of suspected lizard depredation. Three chicks were found predated and dragged out of their nests, and an additional 22 chicks disappeared from their nests before fledging. In 2016, Monteiro`s Storm-petrel breeding success was only 26.8%, the lowest ever recorded. We suspect that some of the chick deaths and nest failures may be attributed to these introduced lizards. All chicks were found dragged out of their nests, a behavior that is not consistent with kills from aerial predators. Lizards were suspected because they are the only possible predator on land. Therefore, we recommend evaluating the impact of Madeiran wall lizards on the two Monteiro`s Storm-petrel main colonies: Praia and Baixo Islets.

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Aim We discuss biogeographical hypotheses for the Mediterranean lizard species Podarcis and Teira within a phylogenetic framework based on partial mitochondrial DNA sequences. Methods We derived the most likely phylogenetic hypothesis from our data set (597 aligned positions from the 12S rDNA and phenyl tRNA) under parsimony, distance and maximum likelihood assumptions. Results The species usually included in Teira do not form a strongly monophyletic clade. In contrast, the monophyly of the genus Podarcis is rather well supported. Seven lineages are identified in the genus; in order of appearance within the tree, these are: the Balearic pityusensis and lilfordi pair, the sicula complex, a Tyrrhenian tiliguerta and raffonei pair, muralis, the Siculo-Maltese filfolensis and wagleriana pair, the Balkan group (erhardi, peloponnesiaca, milensis, melisellensis and taurica), and the Ibero-Maghrebian group (bocagei, atrata, hispanica and vaucheri). Conclusions The origin of the three European genera of lacertid assayed (Lacerta, Teira and Podarcis) is hypothesized to have occurred in the Oligocene. For Podarcis, a possible scenario of a Miocene diversification is derived from the sequence data, and the zoogeography of the lineages are discussed in relation to the palaeogeography of the Mediterranean. It is hypothesized that in the early history of the genus the main lineages separated by rapid, numerous and close events that produced a starting point very similar to a polytomy, hard to resolve by parsimony analysis of the data set.

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The occurrence and form of sex chromosomes were investigated with the aid of C-banding and 4′-6-diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI) staining in 13 species of lacertid lizards. The results obtained show the presence in five species of a female heterogamety in which the two sex chromosomes have the same shape and size, but the W differs from the Z in being almost entirely heterochromatic. This condition is clearly similar to that found in some snakes and considered to be an early stage of differentiation of sex chromosomes by Singh et al. (1976, 1980). A more evolved condition may be that found in three other species in which the W is distinctly smaller than the Z. A third situation is that found in all Podarcis species which, even though they are considered to be among the more evolved species in the family, possess two sex chromosomes that are indistinguishable. In general, the situation in lacertids may be compatible with the hypothesis of sex chromosome evolution put forward by Singh et al. (1976, 1980). However a differentiation mechanism of this kind does not seem to be well established in lacertids, and is probably not the only mechanism that is in operation in this family.

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Chromosomal inter- and intraspecific variation in Lacertidae. The karyology of various species from the family Lacertidae (Reptilia, Sauria) has been studied with conventional and C-banding techniques. The study shows that this family is not so conservative from a karyological viewpoint as considered til! now. In fact supernumerary chromosomes have been observed in two of the species investigated. Moreover an inter- and intraspecific variability has been found in the C-banding pattern of the various species studied. The situation found in Podarcis sicula is particularly remarkable. Different Cbanding patterns have been observed in three different subspecies and in two populations of the same subspecies. The C-banding technique evidences also the existence in some of the species studied of a female sex heteromorphism, in which the W chromosomes is completely heterochromatic. These observations suggest that in lacertid lizards the evolution of the sex chromosomes follows the same steps hypothesized for snakes.

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The karyology of various species from the family Lacertidae (Reptilia, Sauria) has been studied with conventional and C-banding techniques. The study shows that this family is not so conservative from a karyological viewpoint as considered till now. In fact a higher diploid number than that generally observed in most species of Lacertidae and supernumerary chromosomes have been observed in three of the species investigated. Moreover an evident interand intraspecific variability has been found in the C-banding pattern of the various species studied. The situation found in Podarcis sicula is particularly remarkable. Different C-banding patterns have been observed in three different subspecies and in two populations of the same subspecies. These variations do not show a well defined trend and their role in the evolution of lacertid lizards is discussed. The C-banding analysis evidences also the existence in two of the species studied of a female sex heteromorphism, in which the W chromosome has the same shape and size as the Z, but differs from it in being completely heterochromatic. This situation reminds that observed in some snakes and suggests that in lacertid lizards the evolution of sex chromosomes might have followed the same steps previously hypothesized for ophidians.

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Temperature determines all aspects of the biology of ectotherms. Although sexual differences in thermal ecology are not the rule in lizards, some species exhibit such differences.We studied the effect of sex and reproductive condition on the thermoregulation of an introduced population of Scelarcis perspicillata during the summer in Menorca (Balearic Islands, Spain). These lizards live in the wall surfaces of a limestone quarry, where the sun is scarce because of the narrowness of the quarry walls. The population is sexually dimorphic, with larger males than females. We measured body temperature (Tb) of adult males and females in the field, and air (Ta) and substrate temperature (Ts) at the capture sites, and recorded exposure to sunlight, height of the perch, and type of substrate. We also recorded operative temperatures (Te) as a null hypothesis of thermoregulation. Finally, we studied the thermal preferences of adult males and females in a laboratory thermal gradient. Thermal preferences were similar for pregnant and non-pregnant females, and sex did not affect the thermal preferences of lizards, even after controlling for the effect of body size. However, in the field, females achieved higher Tb than males, and occupied microhabitats with higher Ta and Ts and lower perch heights than males. Furthermore, females selected perches in full sun at a higher frequency than males. As a consequence, females achieved a higher accuracy and effectiveness of thermoregulation (0.89) than males (0.84). Thus, all else being equal, females would achieve a higher performance than males. The observed results are attributable to sexual differences in behaviour, probably in relation with the reproductive season.

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Antipredatory defenses are maintained when benefit exceeds cost. A weak predation pressure may lead insular lizards to tameness. Podarcis lilfordi exhibits a high degree of insular tameness, which may explain its extinction from the main island of Menorca when humans introduced predators. There are three species of lizards in Menorca: the native P. lilfordi, only in the surrounding islets, and two introduced lizards in the main island, Scelarcis perspicillata and Podarcis siculus. Besides, there are three species of snakes, all introduced: one non-sauriophagous (Natrix maura), one potentially non-sauriophagous (Rhinechis scalaris) and one sauriophagous (Macroprotodon mauritanicus). We studied the reaction to chemical cues of snakes of five populations: (1) P. lilfordi of Colom, (2) P. lilfordi of Aire, (3) P. lilfordi of Binicodrell, (4) S. perspicillata, and (5) P. siculus, ordered by increasing level of predation pressure. We aimed to assess the relationship between predation pressure and the degree of insular tameness regarding scent recognition. We hypothesized that P. lilfordi should show the highest degree of tameness, S. perspicillata should show intermediate responses, and P. siculus should show the highest wariness. Results are clear: neither P. lilfordi nor S. perspicillata recognize any of the snakes, while P. siculus recognizes the scent of M. mauritanicus, reacting with typical well-defined antipredatory behaviours. In general, our results suggest that chemical discrimination might be evolutionarily lost sooner than other antipredatory adaptations, such as tail autotomy or escape behaviour.

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Lacertinae is one of the three lacertid lizard subfamilies with a geographical distribution confined to the Palaearctic. Several past attempts to reconstruct its phylogeny resulted in unresolved bush-like topologies. We address the question of whether the lack of resolution is due to insufficient data or whether this lack reflects a rapid succession of speciation events. We analyzed four partial and one complete gene sequences from mitochondrial and nuclear genomes, totalling roughly 3600 bp. We included 29 species representing all 19 genera suggested in recent revision of Lacertinae [Arnold, E.N., Arribas, O., Carranza, S., 2007. Systematics of the palaearctic and oriental lizard tribe Lacertini (Squamata: Lacertidae: Lacertinae), with descriptions of eight new genera. Zootaxa 1430, 1–86]. The resulting phylogeny, first, corroborates monophyly at the genus level for the suggested genera, as well as the finding that Atlantolacerta andreanskyi, until recently part of Lacertinae, belongs to the subfamily Eremiadinae. Second, we find that increasing the sequence length and combining multiple nuclear and mitochondrial sequences did not resolve the polytomy, suggesting that the inferred topology indicates a multiple cladogenesis within a short geological period, rather than a methodical artefact. Divergence time estimates, based on previous estimates of several node ages, range from 13.9 to 14.9 million years for the radiation event, however with very broad confidence interval. To associate the radiation with a narrower geological time we consider palaeogeographic and palaeoclimatic data, assuming that the Lacertinae probably evolved in Central Europe andWAsia after the collision of Africa and Eurasia. We suggest that this radiation may date to the late Langhian (ca. 14–13.5 million years) when geological events caused abrupt changes in regional water–land distribution and climate, offering a window of distinct conditions.

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DNA metabarcoding is a fast and simple alternative to traditional microscopy methods, which have been the main tool for identification of prey in dietary studies of lizards. In this study, we applied a metabarcoding approach based on COI and 16S rRNA amplicons to assess diet partitioning and feeding strategies in three syntopic lizards from Taza, Morocco: Scelarcis perspicillata chabanaudi, Scelarcis perspicillata pellegrini and Podarcis vaucheri. In order to avoid competition, these lizards are expected to consume different prey species because they occupy distinct trophic niches, use different foraging strategies and express different dorsal pigmentation patterns. Given the spotted pattern of S. p. chabanaudi, we hypothesize a sit-and-wait foraging strategy with a less diverse diet and a higher consumption of mobile prey relative to the striped S. p. pellegrini and P. vaucheri which, as potential active foragers, are expected to have a higher diet diversity. Previous diet assessments using microscopy on faecal remains seem to contradict these expectations. Our results show that, as expected, the diet of S. p. chabanaudi is less diverse than the diet of S. p. pellegrini. Regarding P. vaucheri, our dietary data are consistent with the hypothesis that this species behaves as an active forager, owing to its high niche overlap with S. p. pellegrini. Advantages and limitations of molecular barcoding compared with the microscopy approach to the analysis of lizard diets are discussed.

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We examined the diet of Lacerta perspicillata in populations from different localities, thus providing the first quantiative data on the diet of this species. Five continental populations in Morocco located at different altitudes and an introduced insular population were analysed during April. Our results confirm that L. perspicillata is an insectivorous species and those found at medium altitudes with comparable ecological conditions in Morocco have a similar diet. In Taza, however, both sympatric L. perspicillata forms have different diets. The most varied diets were observed at high altitude and in insular populations. Local diet variability is probably more related to different ecological conditions and, consequently, changing trophic availability than to lizard body size or other morphological or behavioural constraints. Further studies, including studies on trophic availability and seasonal variation, could confirm our preliminary results on local differences in the dietary habits of this species and the potential role of insularity.

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Lacerta perspicillata is a north-west African lacertid lizard that shows considerable intraspecific variation, with three subspecies described on the basis of colour pattern and body size. Recent observations of a population containing two morphological forms and more than one deep genetic lineage, as well as an apparent lack of concordance between forms and genetic lineages, suggest that the complexity is greater than previously thought. To analyse and quantify this variation, we studied the variability within this species at two levels: (1) external morphology (multivariate analysis of scalation, body dimensions, and colour pattern) and (2) mtDNA (sequencing and singlestrand confirmation polymorphism analysis). Fifty-two individuals were studied at Taza, northern Morocco. Two morphological groupings (ostensibly representing two previously described subspecies) and two deep mtDNA lineages were detected at this site, with complete correspondence between the two. This, together with an apparent lack of hybrids, would normally support respective full species recognition. However, analysis of 98 individuals from other populations demonstrated that the situation is highly complex with the same genetic lineages having reversed morphotypes in other areas, making such a designation difficult. Across the other studied populations, we found no support for any of the currently recognized subspecies. The lack of congruence between mtDNA lineages and morphometric patterns (in some cases) and the morphological similarity among lizards from different lineages suggest ecophenotypic convergence or multiple introgressive hybridization. The study highlights the tremendous complexity that may exist within a taxon and the inadequacy of older alpha-taxonomy based designations in describing it.

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Ultraviolet (UV) vision and UV colour patches have been reported in a wide range of taxa and are increasingly appreciated as an integral part of vertebrate visual perception and communication systems. Previous studies with Lacertidae, a lizard family with diverse and complex coloration, have revealed the existence of UV-reflecting patches that may function as social signals. However, confirmation of the signalling role of UV coloration requires demonstrating that the lizards are capable of vision in the UV waveband. Here we use a multidisciplinary approach to characterize the visual sensitivity of a diverse sample of lacertid species. Spectral transmission measurements of the ocular media show that wavelengths down to 300 nm are transmitted in all the species sampled. Four retinal oil droplet types can be identified in the lacertid retina. Two types are pigmented and two are colourless. Fluorescence microscopy reveals that a type of colourless droplet is UV-transmitting and may thus be associated with UV-sensitive cones. DNA sequencing shows that lacertids have a functional SWS1 opsin, very similar at 13 critical sites to that in the presumed ancestral vertebrate (which was UV-sensitive) and other UV-sensitive lizards. Finally, males of Podarcis muralis are capable of discriminating between two views of the same stimulus that differ only in the presence/absence of UV radiance. Taken together, these results provide convergent evidence of UV vision in lacertids, very likely by means of an independent photopigment. Moreover, the presence of four oil droplet types suggests that lacertids have a four-cone colour vision system.

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Many animals display complex colour patterns that comprise several adjacent, often contrasting colour patches. Combining patches of complementary colours increases the overall conspicuousness of the complex pattern, enhancing signal detection. Therefore, selection for conspicuousness may act not only on the design of single colour patches, but also on their combination. Contrasting long- and short-wavelength colour patches are located on the ventral and lateral surfaces of many lacertid lizards. As the combination of long- and short-wavelength-based colours generates local chromatic contrast, we hypothesized that selection may favour the co-occurrence of lateral and ventral contrasting patches, resulting in complex colour patterns that maximize the overall conspicuousness of the signal. To test this hypothesis we performed a comparative phylogenetic study using a categorical colour classification based on spectral data and descriptive information on lacertid coloration collected from the literature. Our results demonstrate that conspicuous ventral (long wavelength-based) and lateral (short wavelength-based) colour patches co-occur throughout the lacertid phylogeny more often than expected by chance, especially in the subfamily Lacertini. These results suggest that selection promotes the evolution of the complex pattern rather than the acquisition of a single conspicuous colour patch, possibly due to the increased conspicuousness caused by the combination of colours with contrasting spectral properties.

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Different kinds of interactions between lizards and plants in the Mediterranean basin have been described. Lizards have shown to `use` plants as a refuge against predators, as a foraging site, as a thermal microhabitat or as a food resource. In the last case, they can either act as herbivores (+/- interaction, consuming vegetative and/or reproductive parts, and damaging the plant to a higher or lower degree) or as mutualists (+/+ interaction, by behaving as legitimate pollinators and/or seed dispersers). The importance of plants as a food resource for Mediterranean lizards has been found to be high in insular habitats, espescially in small islands, where the paucity of arthropod prey availability redirects the foraging activity of lizards towards other nutrient resources. In such small islands, plants may play a major role in the trophic ecology of lacertid lizards, as suggested by recent studies. Likewise, lizards may be important both as efficient pollen transporters and seed dispersersfor a variety of plants. Some of these lizard-plant interactions are unique. The effect lizards have on the reproductive and dispersal succes of some species may be very relevant for plant preserveation, and in turn, the preserveation of prticular behavioral and ecological traits of the particular lizard populations depends, at least partly, on the plants they interact with.

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Arboreality can provide lizards with refuge from predators and a resource-rich environment, yet this behaviour is rarely observed in European lacertid species. The Madeiran Wall Lizard Teira dugesii is an adaptable species in its native and introduced range, reported to sometimes climb trees and bushes, but this remains largely anecdotal and insufficiently quantified. To better understand such arboreal behaviour, opportunistic and targeted repeated surveys were used to collect data on vegetation climbing by T. dugesii in Madeira and were then supplemented and compared with citizen science data extracted for this species across its range. As an additional comparison, the Guadarrama Wall Lizard Podarcis guadarramae, which has relatively similar ecology and is also known to sometimes climb trees, was also included with a similar number of citizen science records from the Iberian Peninsula. During field surveys in summer 2022, a total 10% (31 observations) out of the total 312 T. dugesii recorded were of individuals climbing trees and flowering shrubs in multiple locations, especially urban parks, but also in natural habitats. Contrary to previous literature reports, many arboreal observations were at substantial heights, of over 10 m in trees, yet the exact reasons for this behaviour and its ecological implications remain unclear. Community science data were abundant (T. dugesii 1161 records; P. guadarramae 1333 records) and included apparently arboreal records but these were difficult to interpret as height information was missing. Overall, T. dugesii appears significantly more arboreal than previously reported or compared to P. guadarramae, yet this behaviour remains mostly ignored. Future work could test the drivers and implications for this behaviour in different habitat types and populations.

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During a five weeks stay in Morocco in spring 1999 it was possible to find lizards at several different localities, and to document the animals by photography. The circumstances of the findings, and the localities where the findings of the Taxa Tarentola mauritanica, T. mauritanica juliae, Plyodactylus oudrii, Geckonia chazaliae, Saurodactylus mauritanicus, S. brosseti, Chamaeleo chamaeleon, Agama impalearis, Teira perspicillata chabanaudi, Podarcis (hispanica) vaucheri, Psammodromus algirus, Acanthodactylus lineomaculatus, A. maculatus, A. aureus, Chalcides occellatus subtypicus, C. mionecton trifasciatus, Eumeces algeriensis, E. algeriensis meridionalis, Blanus mettetali, Trogonophis wiegmanni took place, are mentioned.

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The integration of spatial area prioritization algorithms and species distribution modelling has shown great promise in conservation planning in recent years. However, despite the fact that reptiles and amphibians have the highest threat status of all terrestrial vertebrates, these species are often under-represented in conservation planning. The Kingdom of Morocco possesses the richest and most varied herpetofauna in the Maghreb and the western Mediterranean, and is characterized by high species richness, endemism and number of European relict species. Despite the fact that Moroccan reptiles and amphibians have been the subject of numerous studies by a large number of international herpetologists since the beginning of the 20th century, few or none of these concerned their conservation. This study had three main objectives: (1) to identify those areas that harbour the highest species richness; (2) to evaluate the existing and proposed future ‘important biological and ecological sites’ (SIBES) conservation area network (CAN) with respect to their ability to protect the herpetofauna adequately; and (3) to identify priority areas into which the existing protected areas can be augmented. We used maximum-entropy species distribution modelling to run distribution models for 11 amphibian and 86 reptile species (27.6% endemics and 12.4% threatened) for which we had 2,170 single geographic records. A total of 97 models were used to create a richness map of the Moroccan her- petofauna and thereby detect both areas of high species richness and the distribution patterns of individual species. This map was subsequently used as a basis for performance evaluation of the CAN and area prioritization using the ConsNet conservation planning software initialized by ‘‘Rarity’’ first, while using representation targets of 5% and 10%. Additionally, the proposed future Moroccan CAN (SIBES) was evaluated in terms of its overlay and proximity with ConsNet solutions using visual interpretation and distance measurements in a GIS. Our results show that Moroccan herpetofauna is poorly protected under the existing and future CAN. Prioritization of areas shows that a major increase in conservation area is required to guarantee the persistence of individual herpetofauna species even with a global minimum representation target of only 10%. An increase of the existing CAN is especially needed along parts of the Atlantic coast, in the north-western Mediterranean region, on the north-eastern Moroccan coast, as well as in several areas in the Sahara, notably vast proportions of the Valle ́e du Haut and Bas Draˆa.

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Living on islands entails numerous challenges for animals, among which population density approaching the carrying capacity of trophic resources stands out. To overcome this limitation, many insular lizards can supplement their insectivorous diet with increasing portions of plant material. The Madeira wall lizard, Teira dugesii, is a medium-sized lacertid, endemic to the Madeira and Selvagens archipelagos. As common in this family, adults are sexually dimorphic with males being bigger than females. Previous dietary studies on morphological scatology identified a higher proportion of plant over animal prey items, changing according to the location and sex. Here, we used DNA metabarcoding to examine the diet of this lizard species quantifying it at a higher taxonomical resolution and enhancing the detection of soft-body prey that often go undetected in morphologybased studies. In a sample of 151 faecal samples from eight populations including different habitats and altitudes in Madeira, we identified 289 prey items belonging to eight animal and three plant Classes, encompassing 58 distinct orders and 140 families. Of these, 63 were identified up to the species level. The results support a strong trend towards herbivory in this species with plants representing almost 74% of the diet occurrences in contrast to the 26% of animal prey. Remarkably, the plant fraction of the diet remained stable across localities but varied with size and mass in males. As males grew bigger and heavier, they significantly increased their plant matter intake. Likely, larger bodies and abdomens allowed allocating longer and more complex digestive tracts harbouring intestinal flora to better decompose plant organic compounds. This allowed heavier animals to have a richer diet regime. However, diet richness and composition were not affected by either sex or size, while the locality had a significant effect on both diet components likely in response to local variation in prey availability. By including an increasing plant fraction into a primarily insectivorous diet, this insular lizard has not only enlarged its trophic niche but is also able to exploit more efficiently the highly variable resources provided by insular environments.

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Living on islands entails numerous challenges for animals, among which population density approaching the carrying capacity of trophic resources stands out. To overcome this limitation, many insular lizards can supplement their insectivorous diet with increasing portions of plant material. The Madeira wall lizard, Teira dugesii, is a mediumsized lacertid, endemic to the Madeira and Selvagens archipelagos. As common in this family, adults are sexually dimorphic with males being bigger than females. Previous dietary studies on morphological scatology identified a higher proportion of plant over animal prey items, changing according to the location and sex. Here, we used DNA metabarcoding to examine the diet of this lizard species quantifying it at a higher taxonomical resolution and enhancing the detection of softbody prey that often go undetected in morphology based studies. In a sample of 151 faecal samples from eight populations including different habitats and altitudes in Madeira, we identified 289 prey items belonging to eight animal and three plant Classes, encompassing 58 distinct orders and 140 families. Of these, 63 were identified up to the species level. The results support a strong trend towards herbivory in this species with plants representing almost 74% of the diet occurrences in contrast to the 26% of animal prey. Remarkably, the plant fraction of the diet remained stable across localities but varied with size and mass in males. As males grew bigger and heavier, they significantly increased their plant matter intake. Likely, larger bodies and abdomens allowed allocating longer and more complex digestive tracts harbouring intestinal flora to better decompose plant organic compounds. This allowed heavier animals to have a richer diet regime. However, diet richness and composition were not affected by either sex or size, while the locality had a significant effect on both diet components likely in response to local variation in prey availability. By including an increasing plant fraction into a primarily insectivorous diet, this insular lizard has not only enlarged its trophic niche but is also able to exploit more efficiently the highly variable resources provided by insular environments.

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Here we present the first photographic evidence of opportunistic predation of a small passerine, the Berthelot’s pipitAnthus berthelotii madeirensis, on the Madeiran endemic lizard Teira dugesii mauli. The behaviour was observed in Deserta Grande, Madeira, and represents the second record of lizard predation by A. berthelotii and the first time this species is observed preying upon T. dugesii.

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Algeria is situated at the crossroads between Europe and Africa. The northern part of the country is listed as an area of high biodiversity. Currently, the ecosystems (rivers, lakes, deserts, forests etc.) and the species are under more pressure than ever. The impact of humans is significant and many factors constitute a strong threat to this fauna, especially reptiles, which are the most vulnerable because of their low mobility. Thus, pollution, the drying up of wetlands and their conversion to agriculture have clearly affected the existence of many species. The herpetofauna of Algeria is one of the most diversified in the Mediterranean Basin, consisting of 104 species of which 16.98% are endemic. We suppose that the present list of reptilian fauna provided in this paper is not exhaustive and it is expected to include more species given the lack of research on reptiles in Algeria and its large area. Our dataset contains information on reptile occurrences in Algeria. The dataset is based on original research by the staff of the Laboratory of Environmental Sciences and Agroecology of Chadli Bendjedid University in Algeria. The conservation status of all recorded species is given.

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While the stability of sex chromosomes is widely accepted in viviparous mammals and birds, ectothermic vertebrates are still largely viewed as having frequent turnovers in sex determining systems. Frequent changes in sex determining systems in ectotherms could be problematic for field ecological studies as well as for breeding programs, as molecular sexing across a phylogenetically widespread spectrum of ectothermic vertebrates would not be possible. However, we recently documented that sex determining systems in three important reptile lineages (caenophidian snakes, iguanas, and lacertid lizards) are in fact highly conserved. 2.We applied a new molecular procedure to identify sex within each of these three lineages (encompassing altogether around 4,000 species, i.e. nearly 50% of the recent species of reptiles). This technique uses quantitative PCR (qPCR) to compare copy numbers of genes specific for their respective Z (in caenophidian snakes and lacertids) and X (in iguanas) chromosomes between male and female genomes. The DNA samples required can be collected relatively non-invasively. Unlike molecular sexing based on repetitive elements, this technique can be easily applied to previously unstudied species of these lineages, as the number of copies of protein coding genes linked to the differentiated sex chromosomes is evolutionary highly conserved in each. 3.We suggest that qPCR-based molecular sexing using the comparison of gene copy number is a practical choice for non-model species of caenophidian snakes, iguanas and lacertids. Morever, it should also soon be available for other reptile lineages with differentiated sex chromosomes.

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Hemogregarine parasites are found in many vertebrates, being most prevalent in reptiles, with lizards being the second most common hosts after snakes. Hepatozoon is the most widespread of the four genera that parasitize reptiles by infecting red blood cells. The Hepatozoon lifecycle requires blood–sucking invertebrates as vectors, and vector abundance can determine the parasite prevalence. To compare parasite prevalence between a large island and an islet without standing water, we analysed blood samples of the Madeiran wall lizard, Teira dugesii, at Praia Islet and Gra¬ciosa Island in the Azores, Portugal. We found a comparatively low prevalence of Hepatozoon, belonging to a new genetic line. The prevalence of this new parasite on the larger Graciosa Island was eight times higher than that for Praia Islet, which has no standing water sources. Our results are in line with a generally higher prevalence of blood parasites in sites with higher vector abundance.

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Lizard species may differ in their ecophysiology due to adaptation, plasticity and/or phylogeny. In restrictive environments, ecophysiological differences of species living in sympatry are expected to reveal long-term evolutionary responses to the abiotic environment while competitive interactions should be limited. These influences can be disentangled by combining field monitoring with experimental tests. Here, three lacertid lizard species, Atlantolacerta andreanskyi, Scelarcis perspicillata and Podarcis vaucheri sharing high mountain habitats in Oukaimeden (High Atlas, Morocco), were studied. In the field, spatiotemporal variation of the thermal and hydric environment used by the lizards was monitored using data-loggers. In the lab, thermal and hydric ecophysiology was estimated through assessments of preferred temperatures (Tp) and water loss (WL) rates. Species differed in microhabitat use and, hence, in their exposure to variations in temperature and humidity. However, they only differed in their WL (A. andreanskyi>S. perspicillata>P. vaucheri) while their Tp were similar. Such partial differences of species in in the fundamental niche, likely derived from their long-term independent phylogenetic trajectories, can be used to predict their responses to climate and habitat shifts in this and other parts of their respective ranges. Results also confirm previous suggestions that, together with thermal physiology, hydric physiology plays a prominent role in the organisation of lizard communities in the temperate region.

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The gut contents of about 1700 lizards from the Madeiran Archipelago and die Salvage Islands were examined. The diet, which shows habitat and geographical variation, consists of a variety of invertebrates and a good amount of plant matter. The degree of herbivory is correlated widi lizard sex and size and widi tail autotomy. The amount of food and specialization in the diet were also correlated. Comparisons are made between die sex-size classes widiin die populations.

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En el presente trabajo se realiza un estudio completo de la parasitofauna del lacertido Podarcis dugesii del Archipielago de Madeira (Madeira, Porto Santo y Deserta Grande). Los principales objetivos desarrollados son: I. Revision bibliografica del hospedador asi como de los grupos de protozoos, trematodos, nematodos y acantocefalos parasitos de reptiles y actualizacion de sus claves taxanomicas; II. Aislamiento, identificacion y descripcion de las especies parasitas encontradas; III. Estudio de las relaciones filogeneticas y zoogeograficas existentes entre los hospedadores de areas geograficas proximas, con argumentos parasitarios. Con esta finalidad, se recogieron y examinaron 955 ejemplares de P. dugesii identificandose en ellos 10 especies de protozos, 2 de trematodos, 4 de nematodos (entre ellas una nueva especie) y un acantocefalo, ..

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Observation of introduced lizard species on the Canary Islands of Gran Canaria and Fuerteventura. Teira dugesii from Madeira has been observed on Gran Canaria, Gallotia stehlini, originally from Gran Canaria, on the island of Fuerteventura. Also on Fuerteventura, the evidence of Gallotia galloti eisentrauti, introduced from Tenerife, was confirmed.

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he upper Reraia valley and Toubkal massif of the High Atlas/Morocco was visited several times in April/May. A survey of the landscape, climate and Vegetation is given. Observations on five of the six species of lacertid lizards occurring are reported. Their habitats and altitudinal distribution in relation to the Vegetation zones are described.

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The Middle Atlas of Morocco was visited several times in May/June. A survey of the landscape, climate and vegetation is given: Five species of lacertid lizards (Acanthodactylus erythrurus atlanticus, Podarcis vaucheri, Psammodromus algirus, Scelarcis perspicillata, Timon tangitanus) could be found. Mainly information on distribution and ecology of these species is communicated. Additional information on Psammodromus microdactylus is given. Threats affecting species and conservation measures are discussed.

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There is an increasing amount of evidence pointing towards the importance of bacteria and parasites in the ecology and dynamics of host populations. Complex microorganism communities living in intestinal tracts of the animals are known as the gut microbiome. These bacterial communities can impact the host’s fitness, immune system and behavior, whereas microbiome composition and diversity can be influenced by countless factors such as the host’s taxonomy, habitat, diet and social interactions with other individuals. In turn, blood parasites have a fundamental role in the ecosystem, weakening host fitness and reproductive ability, and thereby influencing population dynamics. Five lacertid lizard species were used for the present work, three endemic and two introduced: in Parque das Nações, Lisbon, the invasive Podarcis siculus (n=20) and the native Podarcis virescens (n=22); another introduced species, Teira dugesii (n=20), was captured from a distinct area of Lisbon (9 kilometres from the Parque das Naçoes); and in Moledo, Northern Portugal, two endemic and syntopic species were studied – Podarcis bocagei (n=33) and Podarcis lusitanicus (n=8). This thesis comprises two investigations. A first study was conducted in order to better understand the role and influence of environmental factors and the host in the gut microbiome composition and diversity of these five species. The second study had the objective of evaluating the effect of blood parasites on host behavior (using a mirror for the behavioral test), with the two syntopic species found in Moledo as models. This project allowed me to characterize the gut microbiome of these five species for the first time. Habitat/locality were the main factors driving gut microbiome differences between these species, and there was a greater microbiome diversity in species captured in Lisbon, the most urbanized studied site. I was able to verify a positive correlation between bacterial diversity and size in P. siculus, which indicates that it accumulates more bacteria, likely because bigger lizards explore more diverse environments. Additionally, I estimated bacteria transmission between sympatric lizards at Moledo and Parque das Nações. High transmission was verified for both populations. Results from the Lisbon population indicate that the invasive species, P. siculus might have acquired a higher proportion of local microbiota through the native species, P. virescens than vice versa. The second study highlighted the infection prevalence differences between P. bocagei and P. lusitanicus, with a larger number of infected individuals in the former. However, P. lusitanicus registered a higher average parasite intensity. The species that interacted with the mirror the most, and was therefore considered bolder, was P. lusitanicus. Contrary to what was expected, the individuals that interacted with the mirror the most, were more parasitized. This thesis aids in understanding the behavior and broadening the sphere of knowledge of microorganisms (bacteria and microparasites) and their interactions with the host. Such work is fundamentally important, and increased investment in these areas of knowledge is essential for species conservation.

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The order Squamata is a species-rich group of reptiles including the groups Sauria, Serpentes and Amphisbaenia. Several members of these groups have been extensively used as model organisms for a great variety of studies of different fields including ecology, behaviour and medicine. Such studies require a well-established phylogenetic framework to trace the evolution and diversity of the studied traits in the squamate tree of life. However, the accuracy of phylogenetic inference in Squamata is unbalanced: while the position of the main squamate groups and high level relationships have been successfully and consistently estimated across phylogenetic studies, the phylogenetic relationships of some groups have provided inconsistent results over the years. The accurate estimation of relationships between these groups might have been hindered by methodological artefacts of the phylogenetic inference due to limited data and analytical tools. For the last couple of decades, and even presently, phylogenetic inference has relied heavily on mitochondrial DNA as the main molecular marker as a result of its advantages, such as the lack of recombination, easy amplification and high evolutionary rate. While its use is based on sound reasons, some drawbacks and limitations have been highlighted, such as the overall small size, and the fact that all genes are linked thus it represents a single locus. To overcome this, the addition of nuclear DNA complements the use of mitochondrial DNA in phylogenetic inference. Within the nuclear DNA, some markers may present so little variation that it is insufficient to recover phylogenetic relationships, yet slow-evolving nuclear genes have been the most widely used markers in phylogenetic studies. On the other hand, it has been shown that the use of highly informative fast evolving nuclear genes, in combination with mitochondrial DNA, can provide resolution at different parts and depths of the evolutionary history of the species. Phylogenetic analyses of multiple loci have historically been based on the concatenation approach, .i.e. the combination of the sequences into a single alignment that is then analysed to represent the species tree. This method, however, relies on the assumption that the most commonly occurring gene tree is equivalent to the true species tree of any taxa, which may not be true in all cases. Another limitation of the concatenation approach is the elevated percentage of missing data that it sometimes entails, especially in large taxon sets, meaning that the sequence representation is The order Squamata is a species-rich group of reptiles including the groups Sauria, Serpentes and Amphisbaenia. Several members of these groups have been extensively used as model organisms for a great variety of studies of different fields including ecology, behaviour and medicine. Such studies require a well-established phylogenetic framework to trace the evolution and diversity of the studied traits in the squamate tree of life. However, the accuracy of phylogenetic inference in Squamata is unbalanced: while the position of the main squamate groups and high level relationships have been successfully and consistently estimated across phylogenetic studies, the phylogenetic relationships of some groups have provided inconsistent results over the years. The accurate estimation of relationships between these groups might have been hindered by methodological artefacts of the phylogenetic inference due to limited data and analytical tools. For the last couple of decades, and even presently, phylogenetic inference has relied heavily on mitochondrial DNA as the main molecular marker as a result of its advantages, such as the lack of recombination, easy amplification and high evolutionary rate. While its use is based on sound reasons, some drawbacks and limitations have been highlighted, such as the overall small size, and the fact that all genes are linked thus it represents a single locus. To overcome this, the addition of nuclear DNA complements the use of mitochondrial DNA in phylogenetic inference. Within the nuclear DNA, some markers may present so little variation that it is insufficient to recover phylogenetic relationships, yet slow-evolving nuclear genes have been the most widely used markers in phylogenetic studies. On the other hand, it has been shown that the use of highly informative fast evolving nuclear genes, in combination with mitochondrial DNA, can provide resolution at different parts and depths of the evolutionary history of the species. Phylogenetic analyses of multiple loci have historically been based on the concatenation approach, .i.e. the combination of the sequences into a single alignment that is then analysed to represent the species tree. This method, however, relies on the assumption that the most commonly occurring gene tree is equivalent to the true species tree of any taxa, which may not be true in all cases. Another limitation of the concatenation approach is the elevated percentage of missing data that it sometimes entails, especially in large taxon sets, meaning that the sequence representation is Miocene and supported a scenario of east-to-west diversification. The little morphological and phylogenetic evidence for the distinctiveness between Rhinechis and Zamenis supports a classification lumping which better reflects their evolutionary history and, based on the priority rule, R. scalaris is moved into the genus Zamenis and designated as Zamenis scalaris comb. nov. Within the Gallotiinae subfamily, the combined use of fast nuclear markers and the species tree was fruitful for the inference of a robust phylogeny of the genus Psammodromus, distributed in the Iberian Peninsula and North Africa. In this study we analysed for the first time the six Psammodromus species to infer the association between the main cladogenetic events within this genus and the complex biogeographic dynamics across the Strait of Gibraltar. The inferred phylogeographical history suggests that Psammodromus probably originated in Iberia. The African species and the African lineage of P. algirus were a result of two over-sea dispersal events towards Africa that occurred 10 Ma and 1.5 Ma, while continental vicariance events might have shaped the diversification of the species within Iberia and Africa. These results, combined with previous literature, provide compelling evidence that major biotic exchanges occurred across the Strait of Gibraltar well before or long after the land connection during the Messinian Salinity Crisis (5.9 – 5.33 Ma). These findings suggest caution in the application of the relatively short event of the opening of the Strait of Gibraltar at the end of the Messinian Salinity Crisis as a cause for divergence in molecular clock calibrations, which is a common approach in literature. At the species level, the use of fast evolving nuclear markers proved to be fruitful to understand the geographical pattern of phyletic diversification within the Omanosaura lizards belonging to the Eremiadini tribe, endemic to the Hajar Mountains in the Arabian Peninsula. Multilocus phylogenetic analyses recovered two highly divergent lineages within O. cyanura which are geographically associated to the northernmost and to the south and eastern regions of the Hajar Mountains. These lineages are reciprocally monophyletic at both mitochondrial and nuclear loci suggesting a long history of independent evolution and the need of a comprehensive taxonomic assessment. Omanosaura cyanura represents an additional case of cryptic diversity in the north Hajar Mountains, an area that has been demonstrated to hide high levels of genetic diversity in other reptile groups. Overall, the work developed in this dissertation has demonstrated that the inclusion of fast evolving nuclear genes and the coalescent species tree approach was relevant for resolving challenging phylogenetic questions on selected squamate groups. This approach allowed the recovery of new clades and provided support for old and recent relationships. These methods have further allowed the comparison between contrasting phylogenetic hypotheses on the Lacertini and Colubrinae, demonstrating that the inference based on the supermatrix approach used by many recent studies may provide high support for incorrect nodes. Future research directions include (i) the application of the phylogenomic approach based on Next Generation Sequence data to further resolve basal polytomy within the Lacertini and Colubrinae radiations; (ii) a taxonomical assessment of Omanosaura; (iii) a re-evaluation of molecular clock calibrations based on the end of the Messinian Salinity Crisis as general cause for divergence, in order to account for biotic exchanges by over-sea dispersal across the Mediterranean well before or long after the land connection during this period, as suggested by emerging literature and the study case on Psammodromus.

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This book shows a comprehensive picture of the reptiles, excluding snakes, living in Europe, North Africa, Middle and Near East and Central Asia. The bulk of the book is an annotated checklist and a distributional atlas of approx 500 species of lizards, crocodiles, turtles and terrapins, and amphisbaenians, living in the Western Palearctic. Information on distribution, subspecies, chorotype and main references are provided for each species, as well as 226 colour maps showing the global distribution of the species on a grid of one degree. For each species map the bibliographic and original sources (more than 850 sources are listed) are indicated. A further 83 maps show the distribution of all genera and main species groups of Palearctic reptiles. Beside the checklist and the atlas, in some additional chapters the following arguments are treated: Materials and methods; status of knowledge on the Palearctic fauna; composition of the Western Palearctic reptile fauna (including a statement on biodiversity and species richness); descriptive biogeography (including a discussion on the Palearctic region boundaries based on reptile distribution and the herpeto-geographic sectors of the Western Palearctic); conservation status. A list of more than 730 references quoted in the text and high quality colour plates including photos of the most of the supraspecific taxa living in the study area completes the book.

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Experience with Podarcis dugesii. In the Dutch language terrarium literature there is almost no information available about the Madeira wall lizard, except notes that it is an aggressive species and data on egg incubation. Podarcis dugesii is a very variable lizard with dorsal coloration varying from yellow-brown to black with yellow of greenish speckles. A line of light speckles on a dark background cover the flanks. Three subspecies have been described. In the wild their diet consists of both insect and plant material. In the terrarium they exhibit a clear preference for insects. As regards choice of biotope Podarcis dugesii is not very selective but the animals are usually found in proximity to water. In a large terrarium it is sometimes possible to combine them with other Podarcis species. In the case discussed this occurred with Podarcis sicula campestris. The terrarium holding the animals had a dry/warm and a damper/cooler area. Hibernation lasted 75-110 days at a temperature of 0-8 °C. The eggs, which were not removed from the terrarium, hatched successfully. The young animals were reared away from the parents. The greatest problem with this species is to find new homes for the young produced.

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PCR screening of ticks and tissue samples collected from 151 Teira dugesii lizards seems to indicate a potential role of this lizard species in the maintenance and transmission cycle of some Ixodes ricinus tick-borne agents, such as Rickettsia monacensis, Rickettsia helvetica, and Borrelia lusitaniae, that are circulating on Madeira Island.

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Research on the taxonomy of European amphibians and reptiles has increased noticeably over the last few decades, indicating the need for recognition of new species and the cancellation of others. This paper provides a critical review of recent changes and draws up a tentative species list.

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The last species list of the European herpetofauna was published by Speybroeck, Beukema and Crochet (2010). In the meantime, ongoing research led to numerous taxonomic changes, including the discovery of new species-level lineages as well as reclassifications at genus level, requiring significant changes to this list. As of 2019, a new Taxonomic Committee was established as an official entity within the European Herpetological Society, Societas Europaea Herpetologica (SEH). Twelve members from nine European countries reviewed, discussed and voted on recent taxonomic research on a case-by-case basis. Accepted changes led to critical compilation of a new species list, which is hereby presented and discussed. According to our list, 301 species (95 amphibians, 15 chelonians, including six species of sea turtles, and 191 squamates) occur within our expanded geographical definition of Europe. The list includes 14 non-native species (three amphibians, one chelonian, and ten squamates).

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The Madeiran wall lizard, Teira dugesii (Milne-Edwards, 1829) is an endemic lizard of the Madeiran archipelago and is widely dispersed throughout different environments. The previous reports of morphological variation of T. dugesii within Madeira have not provided clear patterns but prompted this research into sexual and environment-related differences in morphology. For this study, geometric morphometrics (GMM) techniques combined with phenotypic trajectory analysis were applied to investigate the dorsal and lateral head shape morphology of T. dugesii. Univariate and multivariate statistical analyses were conducted to assess sexual dimorphism within the species and identify if ecological adaptations towards intertidal and terrestrial habitats occurred in the T. dugesii populations across four different localities within Madeira. Sexual dimorphism accounted for the largest proportion of size and shape variation in head morphology. Males exhibited a larger and more robust head shape compared to that of females which displayed relatively more petite and slender head shapes. Intertidal/terrestrial habitats were associated with head shape variation between sexes. Specimens from terrestrial environments also consistently had larger heads compared to intertidal specimens from the same locality. Additionally, phenotypic trajectory analysis revealed habitat differences in head morphology, again supporting parallel phenotypic divergence across localities between lizards from terrestrial and intertidal habitats.

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During a stay in Las Palmas (capital of the island of Gran Canaria) in January 2020, we took the opportunity to search for the introduced population of the Madeira wall lizards (Teira dugesii). After initial difficulties, we were able to take some photographs of these shy animals. Furthermore, we give insights into the very limited and extraordinary habitat of these lizards in the middle of this big city.

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During a stay in Las Palmas (capital of the island of Gran Canaria) in January 2020, we took the opportunity to search for the introduced population of the Madeira wall lizards (Teira dugesii). After initial difficulties, we were able to take some photographs of these shy animals. Furthermore, we give insights into the very limited and extraordinary habitat of these lizards in the middle of this big city.

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In the tortoise Testudo graeca, the lizards Lacerta dugesi and Lacerta pityusensis, and the snake Natrix natrix, the innervation of the testicular interstitial tissue was studied by light and electron microscopy, the acetylcholinesterase (ache) technique, the Falck-Hillarp method for the detection of catecholamines, and the application of 6-hydroxydopamine. The intertubular spaces of the reptilian testes studied contain adrenergic nerve fibers the amount and distribution of which varies considerably both in various species and in various stages of the reproduction cycle. Nerve fibers do not enter the seminiferous epithelium. Fluorescence microscopy of the lizard testis reveals catecholaminergic varicosities which are mainly arranged around blood vessels, but do not show obvious connexions to Leydig cells. Ache-positive fibers are equally distributed in lizard testes surrounding each seminiferous tubule. In Natrix natrix ache-positive fibers are irregularly spread among groups of tubules, without showing a definite relation to Leydig cells either. By electron microscopy bundles of unmyelinated axons and axon terminals can be more easily detected in the testes of immature animals than in adult. Terminals of nerve fibers containing small (400–500 Å in diameter) and large (800–1400 Å) dense-cored vesicles and sometimes small clear vesicles establish contacts with Leydig cells. Three types of contact are described. 1. “Contacts” par distance at a distance of about 2000 Å and basal lamina interposed; 2. membranous contacts having a 200 Å gap only between axolemma and Leydig cell plasmalemma; 3. invaginations of terminals into Leydig cell perikarya. The latter may exhibit surface specialisations, which strongly resemble postsynaptic membrane thickenings. Experiments using 6-hydroxydopamine underline the adrenergic character of testicular nerve fibers, which can be regarded as another example of non-cholinergic, ache-positive neurons. In the testis of the immature tortoise profiles of axons occur which probably represent purinergic, ache-positive neurons.

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The presence of cholinergic nerve terminals was demonstrated in the interrenal gland of the lizards Lacerta dugesi and Lacerta pityusensis. Terminals were more numerous in the subcapsular than in the central zone.

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Chromaffin, small granule-containing (SGC)-cells, neurons and the innervation of these cells was studied in the adrenal gland of three species of reptiles (Testudo graeca, Lacerta dugesi, Natrix natrix). 1. After fixation with glutaraldehyde and osmium-tetroxide adrenaline (A)- and noradrenaline (NA)-storing cells can be distinguished by means of the different electron density of their granules: A-granules are moderately electron-dense, while NA-granules show a core of high electron density. The unusually high electron density of a few A-granules in Testudo occasionally required viewing of unstained sections which facilitated the discrimination of the two cell types in this species. In all species studied NA-granules display a remarkable polymorphism which is most pronounced in the tortoise. In this species A-granules are polymorphic, too. Both types of granules show wide variations in size, which are particularly great in the tortoise. This species also exhibits the largest average sizes for A-granules (285 nm), and NA-granules (354 nm). The corresponding parameters for Lacerta and Natrix, are 255 and 179 nm for A- and 323 and 304 nm for NA-granules, respectively. The rough ER in A- cells of the tortoise regularly occurs in the form of circular dilations (‘ergastosomes’, Kanerva and Hervonen, 1973). Mitochondria sometimes contain longitudinal cristae with a crystalloid internal pattern. Large dense bodies which incorporate granules are abundant in NA-cells. Smaller dense bodies containing a few dense patches and membranes are present in both A- and NA-cells. Intermediate stages between dense bodies and what appear to be A- or NA-granules (if the latter have lost some of their amine-content) are frequently observed. 2. Small granule containing (SGC)-cells are regularly found in the adrenal of reptiles. Their granules have an average size of 146 nm in Testudo (188 and 107 nm in Lacerta and Natrix, respectively). The cells exhibit a high nucleo-cytoplasmic ratio and an electron-lucent cytoplasm. 3. Various types of nerve cell are present in the reptilian adrenal. Small “light” neurons are similar to SGC-cells, but have only few granules, if any. Large “principal” neurons resemble ganglion cells in various autonomic ganglia. According to the morphology of their nuclei and the amounts and distribution of their ER, they may be divided into “light” and “dark” principal neurons. 4. Chromaffin, SGC- and nerve cells are innervated by cholinergic nerve terminals containing small, clear (500–600 Å in diameter) and large, densecored vesicles measuring 730–1340 Å (Testudo). Synapses are usually found on the cell bodies. A-cells in the tortoise which form long processes have their synapses mostly along these processes. A-cell processes are occasionally found in the media of arterioles. Pre- and postsynaptic membrane specialisations are extremely rare on SGC-cells. 5. Adrenergic nerve profiles, which are processes of neither chromaffin nor SGC-cells, may be identified after application of 5- and 6-hydroxydopamine in close proximity of chromaffin cells.

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The arrangement and fine structure of peritubular myoid cells was studied in the testes of three species of reptiles (Lacerta dugesi, Testudo graeca and Natrix natrix) during two short periods of the seasonal cycle (European spring and autumn) and correlated with some ultrastructural properties of Leydig cells. The lamina propria consists of myoid cells, fibroblasts and non-cellular components comprising collageneous and non-striated microfibrils. Both components are arranged in alternating layers surrounding seminiferous tubules. In spring the lamina propria of lacertilian testis shows 1–5 layers of myoid cells which are rich in 50–70 Å filaments and exhibit plasmalemmal and intracellular dense patches, smooth vesicles along the cell membrane and a concentration of organelles in a juxtanuclear position. Leydig cells are rich in smooth ER profiles and have few lipid droplets. In autumn most myoid cells are replaced by fibroblast-like elements. Leydig cells display large numbers of lipid droplets and dense bodies, but only small amounts of agranular ER. Similar changes are noted in Leydig cells of Testudo and Natrix. However, in these species the boundary tissue of seminiferous tubules fails to show significant alterations comparing spring and autumn animals. In both species the lamina propria exhibits a few fibroblast-like cells interspersed among myoid cells.

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Host-gut microbiota interactions are complex and can have a profound impact on the ecology and evolution of both counterparts. Several host traits such as taxonomy, diet and social behavior, and external factors such as prey availability and local environment are known to influence the composition and diversity of the gut microbiota. In this study, we investigated the influence of taxonomy, sex, host size, locality/habitat on gut microbiota diversity in five lizard species from two different sites in Portugal. We also analyzed the potential levels of microbial transmission between species that live in sympatry and syntopy. We studied Podarcis bocagei and Podarcis lusitanicus from northern Portugal (Moledo); and two invasive species, Podarcis siculus and Teira dugesii, and the native Podarcis virescens from Lisbon. We used a metabarcoding approach to characterize the bacterial communities from the cloaca of lizards, sequencing the V4 region of the 16S rRNA. Habitat/locality was found to be the main driver of the differences in composition and structure of gut bacterial communities of the studied lizards, with host effects more evident at finer taxonomic scales. Additionally, lizards from urbanized environments had higher microbiome diversity than lizards from rural areas. We detected a significant positive correlation between size and gut bacterial alpha-diversity in the invasive species P. siculus, which could be due to higher exploratory behaviours. Moreover, estimates of bacterial transmission indicate that P. siculus may have acquired a high proportion of local microbiota. These findings indicate that a diverse array of host and environmental factors can influence lizards gut microbiota.

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Host-gut microbiota interactions are complex and can have a profound impact on the ecology and evolution of both counterparts. Several host traits such as systematics, diet and social behavior, and external factors such as prey availability and local environment are known to influence the composition and diversity of the gut microbiota. In this study, we investigate the influence of systematics, sex, host size, and locality/habitat on gut microbiota diversity in five lizard species from two different sites in Portugal: Podarcis bocagei and Podarcis lusitanicus, living in syntopy in a rural area in northern Portugal (Moledo); the invasive Podarcis siculus and the native Podarcis virescens, living in sympatry in urbanized environment (Lisbon); and the invasive Teira dugesii also living in an urban area (Lisbon). We also infer the potential microbial transmission occurring between species living in sympatry and syntopy. To accomplish these goals, we use a metabarcoding approach to characterize the bacterial communities from the cloaca of lizards, sequencing the V4 region of the 16S rRNA. Habitat/locality was an important factor explaining differences in gut bacterial composition and structure, with species from urbanized environments having higher bacterial diversity. Host systematics (i.e. species) influenced gut bacterial community structure only in lizards from the urbanized environment. We also detected a significant positive correlation between lizard size and gut bacterial alpha-diversity in the invasive species P. siculus, which could be due to its higher exploratory behavior. Moreover, estimates of bacterial transmission indicate that P. siculus may have acquired a high proportion of local microbiota after its introduction. These findings confirm that a diverse array of host and environmental factors can influence lizards gut microbiota.

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Escape behavior of the Mediterranean lizard Lacerta perspicillata was studied experimentally in a limestone quarry at Lithica on the island of Menorca, Balearic Islands, Spain. These lizards are exposed to avian predators while active on vertical rock faces. Simulated kestrel attacks using a cardboard model elicited escape responses from nearly all lizards approached. Methods of escape included entering a crevice, retreating over or around an edge, running behind a shrub growing against the rock surface, running behind a shrub and dropping to the ground (`bush to ground`), and retreating under or behind a rock isolated from a rock face. Most lizards fled directly to the closest available refuge or to alternative refuges only slightly farther away. Nevertheless, lizards that initially perched near crevices more frequently fled to other types of refuge than lizards that were initially near other refuges. The latter usually fled to the closest refuge. Lizards predominantly fled parallel to the ground or directly toward it (down) into a refuge regardless of the direction of attack (above, below, straight on). Direction of attack affected the type of refuge used. Lizards approached from above were more likely to flee to bush-ground or crevices than those approached from below or the same height. Straight-line retreat directly to a refuge appears to be the most viable escape strategy for these lizards when faced with attacks by avian predators, but the direction of attack may influence decisions based on risk.

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Observation of herpetofauna in Madeira 2015–2016 -- Article report the results of herpetological survey of Portugal islands: Madeira, Porto Santo, Ilhas Desertas and Ilhas Selvagens. The original fauna is represented mainly by sea turtles (Dermochelys coriacea, Caretta caretta, Eretmochelys imbricata, Chelonia mydas, Lepidochelys kempii, Lepidochelys olivacea), one endemic lizard species Teira dugesii and the gecko Tarentola bischoffi from Ilhas Selvagens. At least four other species have been introduced into the wild and survive freely (Hemidactylus mabouia, Pelophylax perezi, Ramphotyphlops braminus, Tarentola mauritanica), several other species have been introduced unsuccessfully or are reported only from isolated seizures (Agama agama, Hyla meridonalis, Chamaeleo chamaeleon, Pantherophis guttatus, Zamenis scalaris) and the remaining species data are considered to be erroneous (Gallotia galloti,Chalcides viridanus). Several species, including those at higher risk of invasive distribution, are kept in captivity on the islands (Graptemys pseudogeographica, Trachemys scripta, Centrochelys sulcata.

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Im August letzten Jahres führte mich eine wissenschaftliche Exkursion zusammen mit Herrn Prof. PUTZER, Duisburg auf den Selvagens Archipel. Zweck der Reise waren Untersuchungen der Bioakkumulation gammastrahlender Radionuklide an marinen und terrestrischen Organismen und herpetologische Untersuchungen an den dort endemischen Teira dugesii selvagensis und Tarentola bischoffi. Da bisher kaum bekannt, sollten den Lesern der „elaphe“ hier die Inseln und ihre Echsen näher vorgestellt werden.

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Freilandbeobachtungen an Teira dugesii selvagensis während zweier Forschungsreisen auf den Ilhas Selvagens in den Jahren 2001 und 2002 werden vorgestellt und mit allgemeinen Informationen über Teira dugesii auf die Inseln ergänzt.

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Dokumentation eines Farbwechsels bei vier Teira dugesii dugesii.

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In diesem Bericht werden die auf einer Wanderreise durch Madeira an Teira dugesii gemachten Beobachtungen beschrieben. Der Lebensraum dieser Eidechse auf der Hauptinsel des Madeira-Archipels wird vorgestellt.